{"id":24,"date":"2015-11-13T15:08:40","date_gmt":"2015-11-13T20:08:40","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=24"},"modified":"2017-11-04T06:21:14","modified_gmt":"2017-11-04T10:21:14","slug":"how-do-you-effectively-communicate-your-ideas","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/how-do-you-effectively-communicate-your-ideas\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 3. How do I effectively communicate my ideas?","rendered":"Chapter 3. How do I effectively communicate my ideas?"},"content":{"raw":"Before moving on to editorial style in this chapter, I chose to focus first on writing style in the first two chapters (see the <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/front-matter\/introduction-2\/#style\">Introduction<\/a> for a reminder of the difference). I have made this choice because of the logical flow of the writing process and because the content of your message is the most important element of your paper. Placing too much emphasis on editorial style early on can stifle your creativity, cause unnecessary anxiety, and restrict your freedom to make and learn from your mistakes. As Fowler and colleagues (2005) noted, \"writing is not only, or even mainly, a matter of correctness\" (p. 20).\r\n\r\nWhere editorial style becomes important is in the effective communication of the message you create to others. At this point, you have a draft of your paper, based on your work in <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/what-do-we-mean-by-professional-writing\/\">Chapter 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/how-do-you-generate-and-position-your-ideas\/\">Chapter 2<\/a>. You have taken a break from your research to craft a thesis statement and to organize the ideas you have gathered under the various key points and sub-points in your argument. You also have a sense of the gaps you need to fill to support your argument. You can keep working on finding additional support in the scholarly literature as you begin to refine what you have already written.\r\n\r\nIn this chapter, I introduce some of the core elements of editorial style, drawing heavily on the <em>APA Manual<\/em> and other online resources designed to help you improve the quality of your writing. The techniques below are designed to add clarity, flow, and structure to your paper with a view to making it more meaningful to the reader. Some students decide to ignore APA formatting and forfeit that percentage of their grade; what they do not realize is that writing and editorial skills may also impact the remaining portion of their grade. Your ability to demonstrate critical thinking, to reflect the levels of learning targeted in the course assignment, and to clearly and effectively articulate an argument is directly related to the quality of the writing in your paper. If you have a great idea, but you are not able to articulate it clearly, your instructor likely will not get it!\r\n\r\nYou can use the links below to quickly access information on any of the topics covered:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#paragraph\">Developing strong paragraphs<\/a>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#flow\">Creating flow (key point and sub-points)<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#transitional\">Transitional devices (pronouns \/ transitional words)<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#clarity\">Clarity and conciseness <\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#structuring\">Structuring skills<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#verbs\">Using verbs effectively<\/a>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#verbsource\">Using verbs that reflect your information source<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#verbtense\">Selecting verb tense<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#sentence\">Sentence structure<\/a>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#components\">Basic components of a sentence<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#fragments\">Sentence fragments (incomplete sentences)<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#subverb\">Agreement between subject and verb<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#nounpro\">Agreement between noun and pronoun<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#modifiers\">Appropriate placement of modifiers<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#subordinate\">Subordinate elements<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#parallel\">Parallel construction<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#spelling\">Spelling<\/a>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#misspelled\">Commonly misspelled words<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#canadian\">Canadian spelling<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#hyphenation\">Hyphenation<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#punctuation\">Punctuation<\/a>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#commas\">Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#semicolons\">Semicolons<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#colons\">Colons<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#quotationmarks\">Quotations marks<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#dashes\">Dashes<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#dashes\">Parentheses<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#slashes\">Slashes<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#wordformat\">Word formatting<\/a>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#capitalization\">Capitalization<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#abbreviations\">Abbreviations<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#italics\">Italics<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#numbers\">Numbers<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#summary\">Summary<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1><strong><a id=\"paragraph\"><\/a>Developing strong paragraphs<\/strong><\/h1>\r\nMy focus in this chapter is on the revision phase of the writing process. I emphasize the importance of carefully examining both the content and structure of the paper to ensure that you meet the standards for graduate academic writing. You can now take your draft paper and begin to carefully revise it. Once you find enough information about a particular point, you may start refining your paragraphs.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"flow\"><\/a>Creating flow from your key point to sub-points<\/h2>\r\nFor some ideas about how to develop a good paragraph, see the <a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/606\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab - <em>On Paragraphs<\/em><\/a>. Please also review the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.writing.utoronto.ca\/advice\/planning-and-organizing\/paragraphs\" target=\"_blank\">University of Toronto Writing Workshop - <em>Paragraphs<\/em><\/a> and pay attention to the importance of beginning each paragraph with one of the key points in your argument (referred to as a topic sentence). In your topic sentence, you describe the element of your overall argument that you plan to address in the paragraph. If you find yourself moving away from your key point, start a new paragraph! As a general rule of thumb, restrict your paragraphs to about half a page in length, with one key point per paragraph and a number of supporting or sub-points. The reader will likely lose focus on your key point if you run beyond one page per paragraph (see the <em>APA Manual<\/em> Section 3.08).\r\n\r\nYou can organize the sub-points in your paragraph in a number of ways (Fowler et al., 2005):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>general to specific or specific to general;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>chronologically, from most recent to oldest or vice versa;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>simplest to most complex or most complex to simplest;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>most important to least important or least important to most important; or<\/li>\r\n \t<li>most familiar to least familiar or vice versa.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nFor more information about how to write effective paragraphs using some of these organizational strategies, see the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.uvic.ca\/wguide\/Pages\/MasterToc.html#Paragraphs\" target=\"_blank\">University of Victoria Writer's Guide - <em>Developing and Ordering Paragraphs<\/em><\/a>. In the examples in Figure 3.1 below, notice the difference in flow of the paragraphs when they are organized in different ways. The unorganized paragraph below is the least clear and meaningful!\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Thesis statement<\/strong>: Navigating end-of-life care with patients or clients requires reflexivity and self-awareness as well as openness to the worldview and lived experiences of the patient or client.\r\n\r\n<strong>General to specific:<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Health care practitioners cannot respond effectively and ethically to patients or clients at the end of their lives without critical reflection on their own beliefs, values, and potential biases about life and death<\/em>. [<span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><strong>This is my key point for this paragraph.<\/strong><span style=\"color: #000000;\">] Practitioners all hold attitudes, beliefs, or assumptions about health that can influence care for patients or clients. To a large degree, those elements of our worldview are shaped by the cultures in which we live, as well as by our own cultural identities (age, ability, socioeconomic status, religion, and so on). Many cultures embrace death as a natural part of the life cycle; others, particularly Western cultures, lean towards a collective phobia about death. Health care practitioners are more likely to allow their own beliefs and biases to surface when situations touch on heavy emotions or deeply ingrained beliefs, which often accompany end-of-life experience and choices. They must bring those perspectives into conscious awareness to avoid directly or indirectly imposing their values on patients or clients. The practice of reflexivity invites critical evaluation of their own reactions before, during, and after encounters with patients or clients to ensure that client needs and worldviews are prioritized in their care.<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<strong>Unorganized<\/strong>:\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Many cultures embrace death as a natural part of the life cycle; others, particularly Western cultures, lean towards a collective phobia about death. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Health care practitioners are more likely to allow their own beliefs and biases to surface when situations touch on heavy emotions or deeply ingrained beliefs, which often accompany <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">end-of-life<\/span><\/span> experience and choices. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The practice of reflexivity invites critical evaluation of their own reactions before, during, and after encounters with patients or clients to ensure that client needs and worldviews are prioritized in their care.<\/span><\/span> <em>Health care practitioners cannot respond effectively and ethically to patients or clients at the end of their lives without critical reflection on their own beliefs, values, and potential biases about life and death<\/em>. <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Practitioners all hold attitudes, beliefs, or assumptions about health that can influence care for patients or clients. They must<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\"> bring those perspectives into conscious awareness to avoid directly or indirectly imposing their values on patients or clients.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">To a large degree, those elements of our worldview are shaped by the cultures in which we live, as well as by our own cultural identities (age, ability, socioeconomic status, religion, and so on). <\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<strong>Most familiar to least familiar:\r\n<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Health care practitioners cannot respond effectively and ethically to patients or clients at the end of their lives without critical reflection on their own beliefs, values, and potential biases about life and death<\/em>. <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The practice of reflexivity invites critical evaluation of their own reactions before, during, and after encounters with patients or clients to ensure that client needs and worldviews are prioritized in their care.<\/span><\/span> <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Practitioners all hold attitudes, beliefs, or assumptions about health that can influence care for patients or clients. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">They must bring those perspectives into conscious awareness to avoid directly or indirectly imposing their values on patients or clients. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Health care practitioners are more likely to allow their own beliefs and biases to surface when situations touch on heavy emotions or deeply ingrained beliefs, which often accompany <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">end-of-life<\/span><\/span> experience and choices. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">To a large degree, those elements of our worldview are shaped by the cultures in which we live, as well as by our own cultural identities (age, ability, socioeconomic status, religion, and so on).\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Many cultures embrace death as a natural part of the life cycle; others, particularly Western cultures, lean towards a collective phobia about death. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3><em>Figure 3.1<\/em>. Ways to organize sub-points within a paragraph.<\/h3>\r\nThe type of organizational structure you chose does not matter; what matters is that you have a logical flow in your paragraph so that the reader understands your key point and sub-points.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"transitional\"><\/a>Using transitional devices<\/h2>\r\nUsing transitional words will increase the logical flow of ideas within a particular paragraph (<em>APA Manual<\/em> Section 3.05). There are two types of transitional words.\r\n\r\n<strong>Pronouns<\/strong> may be used to link one sentence to the content of another. Here are two examples:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"red\">Wiseman<\/span> (2003) stated that it is important for health practitioners to be familiar with provincial health regulations. <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\" class=\"red\">She<\/span><\/strong> noted that even the regulations pertaining to other health professions provide useful information.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Wiseman (2003) stated that provincial <span class=\"red\">health regulations should be included in health disciplines training<\/span>. <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\" class=\"red\">They<\/span><\/strong> often provide useful information that can be applied across health professions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn both examples above, you can tell which noun I am referencing in the previous sentence, and the pronoun I choose matches that noun (Wiseman . . . She . . . : health regulations. . . They . . . ). In the following example, it is unclear which noun from the first sentence is being referenced (Wiseman and colleagues or health regulations), so the meaning is blurred.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"red\">Wiseman and colleagues<\/span> (2003) stated that it is important for health practitioners to be familiar with provincial <span class=\"red\">health regulations<\/span>. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span class=\"red\">They<\/span><\/span> often provide useful information.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Transitional words<\/strong> may also be used at the beginning of sentences to provide a link based on time, place, cause, purpose, and so on. Here is an example:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Wiseman (2003) stated that it is important for health practitioners to be familiar with provincial health regulations. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span class=\"red\">In addition<\/span><\/span>, some federal laws provide guidance in areas not covered under provincial legislation.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIf you have trouble identifying new ways to say \"In addition to,\" or if you are not clear about which transitional word to use, review the tips on the following Web sites:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/Transitions.html\" target=\"_blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison's Writing Center - <em>Transitional Words and Phrases<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/574\/02\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University's Online Writing Lab - <em>Transitional Devices<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise1\"><\/a>Exercise 1<\/h3>\r\nComplete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex1\">Exercise 1<\/a> to test your understanding of when to use transitional words to enhance meaningfulness in your paper. The <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex1a\">Exercise 1 Feedback<\/a> provides an idea of how the paragraph might be improved.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"clarity\"><\/a>Writing with clarity and conciseness<\/h2>\r\nMany graduate students struggle to write with precision. You may need to eliminate words that distract from your intended meaning and choose words that clearly communicate that meaning.\r\n\r\n<strong>Conciseness or economy of expression<\/strong>. Many writers, even those who have been at it for a long time, find it challenging, sometimes almost impossible, to say things effectively, even when they specifically set out to do so, without using so many extra and unnecessary words. Did you catch my illustration of this point? As a result, their meaning becomes lost. Take a moment to read through Section 3.08 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> for some tips on how to be more concise in your writing.\r\n\r\n<strong>Precision and Clarity<\/strong>. Many writers also find it challenging to use language effectively to communicate exactly what they mean. Section 3.09 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> introduces a number of strategies for increasing the precision of your writing. Here are some pitfalls that graduate students commonly encounter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Vague pronouns. <\/strong>\"Great writers create happy readers. <strong>They<\/strong> value precision and clarity.\" It is unclear whether <em>They <\/em>refers to the writers or the readers.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Editorial <em>we. <\/em><\/strong>\"We should all be careful to write what we actually mean.\" Who is the <em>We<\/em> in this sentence?<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Jargon.<\/strong> \"Alberta companies are engaged in redundancy elimination in response to right-sizing pressures.\" There are more clear ways to say that layoffs are taking place. Professional jargon should also be avoided (or at least defined) because it may not be common knowledge for the reader.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Anthropomorphism. <\/strong>\"The local charities in Victoria are doing a lot of Syrian refugees.\" \"The study argues that significant changes have occurred in nursing practice.\" It is the members or boards of the charities (human beings) who are doing this work. Avoid attributing human characteristics or actions to organizations, animals, objects, or other inanimate subjects.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nYou may want to check out these additional resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/635\/1\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University's Online Writing Lab - <em>Paramedic Method: A Lesson in Writing Concisely<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/ClearConciseSentences.html\" target=\"blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison's Writing Center - <em>Writing Clear, Concise Sentences<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise2\"><\/a>Exercise 2<\/h3>\r\nAs a test of your understanding of these concepts, complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex2\">Exercise 2<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex2a\">Exercise 2 Feedback<\/a> provides my suggested changes. You may find additional ways to improve this text.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"structuring\"><\/a>Structuring skills<\/h2>\r\nUsing structuring skills is another way to enhance the meaning and flow of your paper. These skills are used predominantly to connect paragraphs or sections of your paper to one another.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">If you have taken an interpersonal communications skills course, you have likely been introduced to a number of verbal skills that are designed to help you effectively and purposefully communicate your ideas and facilitate dialogue with others. A number of these same skills are very useful for creating a clear and logical flow of ideas in your written work.<\/div>\r\nThe structuring skills in Table 3.1 are designed to increase the meaningfulness and logical flow of your paper. The person reading your paper should be able to see the logical sequence of arguments by simply reading the topic sentences (key points) of each paragraph and the structuring skills used throughout your paper.\r\n<h3>Table 3.1. <em>Structuring Skills for Enhancing Meaning and Flow<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Skill<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Description<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Overview<\/td>\r\n<td>An overview is a short statement at the beginning of a section or at a transition point within a paper that outlines the key points that are to follow. This helps the reader to understand the structure of the paper and develop realistic expectations as to what the paper will accomplish.<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nThis section describes the conceptualization of human nature from a humanistic perspective.\r\n\r\nI will now review the literature on feminist approaches to change, followed by a discussion of how these approaches differ from humanistic strategies.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Transition<\/td>\r\n<td>A transition is a short statement that signals a change in topic or direction in a paper.<\/td>\r\n<td>This review of the change process leads naturally to a discussion of how outcomes are measured within each model.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Summary<\/td>\r\n<td>Summaries include a statement or statements that review or pull together the essence of several paragraphs or sections of a paper. Summaries often occur at the end of a paper or at a transition point within the paper. Summaries encapsulate the arguments presented, rather than listing them again. They help the reader capture the bottom line and serve to wrap up a particular portion of a paper.<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nEach of the methods described above is based on the underlying assumption that human nature is basically good and that change is possible.\r\n\r\nBased on the description of the change processes above, I conclude that feminist theorists most often place the locus of change at the systems level. This contrasts dramatically with the assumption of the primacy of self in the humanistic therapies described in the first section of the paper.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Summary + Transition<\/td>\r\n<td>In many cases, you will find it useful to combine these structuring skills. For example, placing a summary at the end of a section, followed by a transition or an overview of the next section, provides additional clarity and flow.<\/td>\r\n<td>Each of the techniques outlined in this section targeted change at the level of the individual client. The next section will focus on intervention strategies that expand the target of change to include systems (e.g., groups, organizations, or social systems).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise3\"><\/a>Exercise 3<\/h3>\r\nComplete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex3\">Exercise 3 <\/a>to apply these concepts to a sample text. The <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex3a\">Exercise 3 Feedback<\/a> provides one example of how structuring skills can improve the flow and meaningfulness of the text. Be sure that your responses provide a similar structure.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nYou should also avoid paragraphs that contain only one sentence, like this one, because they float in space without meaningful connection to your argument.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>The sandwich technique<\/h3>\r\nThink of each paragraph as a sandwich! You should be able to read the first and last sentence of each paragraph in your paper and understand the thesis and key arguments presented. If you cannot, then you need to include additional structuring skills. Check this out by reviewing only the structuring skills from <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex3a2\">Exercise 3<\/a>.\r\n\r\nYou will notice that I have deliberately not used standard formats for the structuring skills (e.g., In this paragraph, I will discuss\u2026). At the outset, you may find it easier to follow these formats, but you will discover that your paper is more enjoyable to read if you vary your style.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1><a id=\"verbs\"><\/a><strong>Using verbs effectively<\/strong><\/h1>\r\nVerbs are one element of a sentence that can either increase or decrease meaning. The <em>APA Manual<\/em> also specifies a number of editorial expectations for your use of verbs and verb tenses.\r\n<h2><a id=\"verbsource\"><\/a>Using verbs that reflect the nature of your information source<\/h2>\r\nIn <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/what-do-we-mean-by-professional-writing\/\">Chapter 1<\/a>, the issue of intellectual honesty was introduced, and you were cautioned to treat the work of other writers respectfully. You must also carefully choose verbs that accurately reflect your information source (see <em>APA Manual<\/em> Section 1.13). When you are drawing on research studies to support your points, it is appropriate to simply list the sources after each of your assertions. Here is an example:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>A significant correlation exists between self-esteem and self-efficacy (Brown &amp; Woods, 2003; Frankel, 2005; Warrens et al., 2001).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nHowever, in many cases, journal articles and other information sources reflect the opinions or hypotheses of the authors. In such cases, be careful to select verbs that indicate to the reader the nature of the original information.\r\n<div>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Collins (2006) argued that writing skills have a dramatic effect on success in graduate education.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>A number of authors speculated that globalization would soon require an expansion of professional ethics to address fundamental human rights at the international level (Martins &amp; Perez, 2006; Pettifor, 2005).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><a id=\"verbtense\"><\/a>Selecting verb tense<\/h2>\r\nStudents often struggle with verb tense in their papers. Read Sections 3.06 and 3.18 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>. Table 3.2 contains suggestions about which verb tense to use in various parts of your paper. In most cases, you will not be reporting on your own research, so the procedures and results may not apply. You are also not expected to provide an abstract for most course assignments.\r\n<h3>Table 3.2 <em>Verb Tense and Elements of Your Paper<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Section of Paper<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Verb Tense<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Criteria<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td rowspan=\"3\">Abstract<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Past<\/td>\r\n<td>Refers to your study or paper as an event in the past (now completed)<\/td>\r\n<td>The study <strong>explored<\/strong> the differences in worldview between rural and urban teachers. Significant differences <strong>existed<\/strong> between those individuals who\u2026<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>and<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>and<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>and<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Present<\/td>\r\n<td>Refers to any conclusions or implications you draw in the present<\/td>\r\n<td>It is important to include a discussion of values and biases in teacher education programs.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td rowspan=\"3\">\n\nIntroduction,\r\n\r\nLiterature Review, and\r\n\r\nProcedures\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Past<\/td>\r\n<td>Refers to an event, action, or circumstance at a specific time the past<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nWithrow (2006) <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">noted<\/span><\/strong> that female participants tended to respond more frequently than male participants.\r\n\r\nParticipants <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">completed<\/span><\/strong> a series of self-assessment questionnaires.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>or<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>or<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>or<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Present perfect<\/td>\r\n<td>Refers to an event, action, or circumstance that did not occur at a specific time the past or that started in the past and continues into the present<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nSeveral studies <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">have indicated<\/span><\/strong> a link between self-esteem and early childhood social supports.\r\n\r\nThis methodology <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">was<\/span><\/strong> effective in soliciting consistent response patterns from participants.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Results<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Past<\/td>\r\n<td>Results of your study occurred in the past<\/td>\r\n<td>Each group <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">responded<\/span><\/strong> to the questionnaire within the timeframe provided.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\n\nDiscussion\r\n\r\nand\r\n\r\nConclusions<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Present<\/td>\r\n<td>Refers to your current thinking about the issues and invites others into that discussion<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nThis study <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">shows<\/span><\/strong> evidence of a connection between worldview and preferred intervention strategy.\r\n\r\nSeveral implications <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">arise<\/span><\/strong> from the differences in perceived well-being among these groups.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe purpose of selecting and consistently using specific verb tenses is to facilitate effective communication. In most cases, when you are reporting on published research, you will be speaking in the past tense, because these were arguments made by these individuals at a particular point in time. If you need further information about how to write in a particular verb tense, please see the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/verbs.php\">Athabasca University English Grammar Handbook<em> - Verbs<\/em>.<\/a> Follow the patterns outlined for various components of your paper. Switching verb tense within a paragraph or section will interrupt the flow of your paper and may reduce effective communication of your meaning to the reader. You also risk misrepresenting the nature of your information sources.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1><a id=\"sentence\"><\/a><strong>Sentence structure<\/strong><\/h1>\r\nThe way you structure your sentences can have a dramatic effect on how well your paper reads. Remember, writing is about communicating meaning. Very simply, poor sentence structure can distract or confuse the reader, and your meaning may suddenly be lost. Composing a clear and meaningful sentence involves organizing the various components of your sentence properly.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"components\"><\/a>Basic components of a sentence<\/h2>\r\nIf you are like most graduate students, it has probably been a long time since you have reviewed basic grammar rules. Even the parts of a sentence may no longer be easy for you to identify. Review the definitions in Table 3.3 to facilitate your understanding of sentence structure (adapted from Fowler et al., 2005, pp. 159-160).\r\n<h3>Table 3.3. <em>Basic Components of a Sentence<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Component<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Definition<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Nouns<\/td>\r\n<td>Person, place, thing<\/td>\r\n<td><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>George<\/strong><\/span>, the <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>cat<\/strong><\/span>, lives in <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>Alberta<\/strong><\/span>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Pronouns<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nSubstitutes for nouns, either personal or relative\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\n<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>He<\/strong><\/span> is a happy cat (personal).\r\n\r\nGeorge enjoys lounging on the window, <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>which<\/strong><\/span> faces the street (relative).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Verbs<\/td>\r\n<td>Actions, occurrences, states of being<\/td>\r\n<td>He <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>moves<\/strong><\/span> slowly (action). He <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>has become<\/strong><\/span> less energetic over time (occurrence). However, he <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>is<\/strong><\/span> content (state of being).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Adjectives<\/td>\r\n<td>Describe or modify nouns or pronouns\r\n(quantity, quality, etc.)<\/td>\r\n<td>He is a <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>lazy<\/strong><\/span> cat and the <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>only<\/strong><\/span> cat in the house.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Adverbs<\/td>\r\n<td>Describe or modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or groups of words (where, when, how, etc.)<\/td>\r\n<td><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>Oddly<\/strong><\/span>, George moves <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>even more<\/strong><\/span> slowly when a <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>very<\/strong><\/span> plump spider <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>quietly<\/strong><\/span> crawls down the wall.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Prepositions<\/td>\r\n<td>Connect nouns or pronouns to other components of a sentence<\/td>\r\n<td>Three baby spiders crawl along <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>behind<\/strong><\/span> the plump spider.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Conjunctions<\/td>\r\n<td>Link words, phrases, or clauses:<\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Coordinating conjunctions link equally important elements<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>George wiggles <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>and<\/strong><\/span> squirms, <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>but<\/strong><\/span> he can not get his paws to move (coordinating).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Correlative conjunctions also link equally important elements<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>Neither<\/strong><\/span> his front paws <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>nor<\/strong><\/span> his back paws budge.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Subordinating conjunctions link less important elements to the main element<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>George is very surprised <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>because<\/strong><\/span> he is usually not this slow!<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Modifiers<\/td>\r\n<td>A word or group of words that adds information about another word or phrase:<\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Adjectives or phrases that act as adjectives<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>Cats <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>that suffer from such paralysis<\/strong><\/span> are rare (acts as an adjective).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Adverbs or phrases that act as adverbs<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>George is brave <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">i<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">n every other situation<\/span><\/span><\/strong> (acts as an adverb).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nYou will have difficulty following the grammar rules in the <em>APA Manual<\/em> or other writing resources if you do not understand these basic elements of sentences. For further information, or for definitions of terms not appearing on this list, see the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/basic_grammar.php\">Athabasca University English Grammar Handbook<em> - Basic Grammar: Parts of Speech<\/em>.<\/a>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"fragments\"><\/a>Sentence fragments (incomplete sentences)<\/h2>\r\nYou may find yourself getting feedback that you are not writing in complete sentences. To create a sentence, you must include both a <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong><span class=\"red\">subject<\/span><\/strong><\/span> (a noun or pronoun) and a <span style=\"color: #339966;\"><em><strong><span class=\"blue\">verb<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/span>.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\" class=\"red\">She<\/span> <span style=\"color: #339966;\"><em><span class=\"blue\">cried<\/span><\/em><\/span><\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\" class=\"red\">test<\/span> <span style=\"color: #339966;\"><em><span class=\"blue\">was<\/span><\/em><\/span><\/strong> difficult.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong><span class=\"red\">It<\/span><\/strong><\/span> <span style=\"color: #339966;\"><em><strong><span class=\"blue\">will be<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/span> difficult to see the outcome.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following are not sentences because they are missing either a subject or a verb.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Critical incident <span class=\"red\">reports<\/span> in many classical experiments. [no verb]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"blue\">Running<\/span> and <span class=\"blue\">hiding<\/span>. [No subject]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWhen you start a sentence with a <strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\" class=\"purple\">subordinating conjunction<\/span><\/strong> or a <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\" class=\"green\">relative pronoun<\/span><\/em><\/strong>, you must ensure it is still a complete sentence. The following are not sentences even though they may contain a <span class=\"red\">subject<\/span> and a <span class=\"blue\">verb<\/span>.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\" class=\"purple\">Because<\/span><\/strong> <span class=\"red\">she<\/span> <span class=\"blue\">cried<\/span>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333399;\"><strong><span class=\"purple\">In spite of<\/span><\/strong><\/span> the fact that the <span class=\"red\">test<\/span> <span class=\"blue\">was<\/span> difficult.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\" class=\"green\">Who<\/span><\/em><\/strong> <span class=\"blue\">found<\/span> it difficult to see the outcome.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise4\"><\/a>Exercise 4<\/h3>\r\nComplete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex4\">Exercise 4<\/a> to make sure you have a good understanding of how to structure a complete sentence and to ensure you have the vocabulary necessary to follow other guidelines for effective writing. Check your responses with <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex4a\">Exercise 4 Feedback<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nFor more detailed information on sentence structure, see <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/recognition_of_sentence_parts.php\">Athabasca University's English Grammar Handbook-<em> Sentences and Grammar<\/em>.<\/a> You may also want to review examples of how to correctly form more complex sentences through the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/604\/01\/\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> - Sentence Punctuation Patterns<\/em>.<\/a>\r\n\r\nIf you want further information on sentence fragments, please see the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/ucalgary.ca\/ssc\/files\/ssc\/wss_fragments_2013.pdf\">University of Calgary Writing Support Services - <em>Identifying and Fixing Sentence Fragments<\/em>.<\/a>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"subverb\"><\/a>Agreement between the subject and verb<\/h2>\r\nRead Sections 3.19 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, then review <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/599\/01\/\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> - Making Subjects and Verbs Agree<\/em>.<\/a> The basic principle is that both the subject and the verb must be either singular or plural. Where errors occur is typically in mistaking a noun (the subject) as either singular or plural. <span style=\"color: #333333;\">Table 3.4 summarizes some of the grammatical rules related to agreement between <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">subject<\/span><\/strong> and <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">verb<\/span><\/strong><\/em>.<\/span>\r\n<h3>Table 3.4. <em>Principles for Subject-Verb Agreement<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Subject and verb must agree \u2013 singular or plural<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">animals<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">play<\/span><\/strong><\/em> well together.\r\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">cat<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">plays<\/span><\/strong><\/em> well by himself.\r\nThere <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">are<\/span><\/strong><\/em> three <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>dogs<\/strong><\/span> playing.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Watch out for plural nouns that may appear singular such as data or ethics<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">ethics<\/span><\/strong> of each member <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> what binds them together.\r\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">data<\/span><\/strong> <em><span style=\"color: #339966;\"><strong>are<\/strong><\/span><\/em> consistent with other findings.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>If subjects are connected by <em>and,<\/em> use the plural form<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">cat and dog<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">play<\/span><\/strong><\/em> well together.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>If subjects are connected by <em>or<\/em> or <em>nor,<\/em> link the verb to the closest subject<\/td>\r\n<td>Neither the dog nor the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">cats<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">are<\/span><\/strong><\/em> happy.\r\nNeither the cats nor the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">dog<\/span> <em><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/em><\/strong> happy.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ignore phrases that add additional information (including, in addition to\u2026) or qualify the subject (who, which\u2026)<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">evidence<\/span><\/strong> of the crime together with the lack of alibi <em><span style=\"color: #339966;\"><strong>points<\/strong><\/span><\/em> to their guilt.\r\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">response<\/span><\/strong> from all participants <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">was<\/span><\/strong><\/em> similar.\r\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">subject<\/span><\/strong>, which is singular, <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">determines<\/span><\/strong><\/em> the verb format.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Collective nouns (family, group, pair\u2026) are treated as singular if the verb refers to the individuals and plural if the verb refers to the group or collective<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">family<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">head<\/span><\/strong><\/em> off in different directions.\r\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">couple<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> welcomed warmly.\r\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">group<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">does<\/span><\/strong><\/em> not want to participate.\r\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">collection<\/span><\/strong> of items <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">are<\/span><\/strong><\/em> sorted into piles.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Treat words like <em>each<\/em>, <em>every<\/em>, <em>any<\/em>, or <em>some<\/em> as singular<\/td>\r\n<td>Any <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">person<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> welcome.\r\n<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Everyone<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> welcome.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>The word <span style=\"color: #333333;\"><em>none<\/em><\/span> can be either singular or plural depending on the word that follows<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">None<\/span><\/strong> of the events <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">are<\/span><\/strong><\/em> open.\r\n<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">None<\/span><\/strong> of the news <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> good.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"nounpro\"><\/a>Agreement between pronouns and the nouns they replace<\/h2>\r\nRead Section 3.20 of the <em>APA Manual <\/em>and <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/595\/1\/\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> - Using Pronouns Clearly<\/em><\/a>. There are several basic principles that you should follow to ensure congruence between <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">nouns<\/span><\/strong> and <em><strong><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">pronouns<\/span><\/strong><\/em>, as outlined in Table 3.5.\r\n<h3>Table 3.5. <em>Principles for Noun-Pronoun Agreement<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>The pronoun and noun should agree in number<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">participants<\/span><\/strong> exhibited distress when <em><strong><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">they<\/span><\/strong><\/em> were exposed to the stimulus.\r\nIt was unclear whether the other woman or <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">I<\/span><\/strong> was the first to hold up <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">my<\/span><\/em><\/strong> hand. [Notice that the verb is singular]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>The pronoun and noun must agree in gender (See the caveat below on gender neutral pronouns!)<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">Each<\/span><\/strong> of the girls <span style=\"color: #333333;\">believes<\/span> that <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">she<\/span><\/em><\/strong> is the first to arrive. [Notice that the verb is singular]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Use neuter pronouns for animals and inanimate objects<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">scoring card<\/span><\/strong> was prepared in advance, and <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">it<\/span><\/em><\/strong> was available to each observer.\r\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">horse<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">that<\/span><\/strong><\/em> we had planned to ride was missing.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>If the pronoun is a subject, use <em>who<\/em>; if the pronoun is an object, use <em>whom<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>There are <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">three people<\/span><\/strong> here <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">who<\/span><\/em><\/strong> look like the suspect. [<em>who<\/em> is the subject of the verb <em>look<\/em>]\r\nThere are <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">three people<\/span><\/strong> here <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">whom<\/span><\/em><\/strong> the inspector identifies as potential suspects. [<em>inspector<\/em> is the subject and <em>whom<\/em> is the object of the verb <em>identifies<\/em>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>When a participle is used as a noun, make the pronoun possessive<\/td>\r\n<td>The results of the test are not useful because of <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">their<\/span><\/em><\/strong> <span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\"><strong>lowering of the mean<\/strong><\/span>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h3><a id=\"they\"><\/a>Beyond APA: <em>They<\/em> as a singular pronoun<\/h3>\r\nAs with most disciplines, English grammar is rooted in Western worldviews that have traditionally treated gender as a binary concept: one is either male or female. Gender diversity (e.g., fluidity and complexity of gender identity) is now well recognized, both in health disciplines literature (American Counselling Association, 2014) and is reinforced by human rights legislation (United Nations Human Rights, n.d., 2014). This is resulting in a slow but critical transformation in language use. Take a moment to review the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.apastyle.org\/apastyle\/2015\/11\/the-use-of-singular-they-in-apa-style.html\">APA Style - <em>The Use of Singular \u201cThey\u201d in APA Style<\/em><\/a>.\r\n\r\nI believe that health practitioners should be taking responsibility for our deliberate use of language to support of cultural diversity and social justice. Here are a few tips for doing so:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Respect the gender identity of your <em>subject <\/em>(in the grammatical sense of the word). If that individual uses the pronouns <em>he <\/em>or <em>she<\/em>, then you should use them. If that person uses the pronoun <em>they<\/em>, then you should mirror their self-identification.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>If the gender identity of the subject is unknown, then default to gender-neutral language wherever possible. You can often accomplish this by restructuring your sentence in a way that respects traditional rules of grammar.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Make a conscious statement about gender by defaulting to <em>they <\/em>or <em>them <\/em>rather than <em>he\/she <\/em>or <em>him\/her. <\/em>Here is an example: The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">patient<\/span><\/strong> I saw yesterday listed depression and anxiety as <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">their<\/span><\/strong> presenting concerns. Note: you may need to educate your instructor about this choice.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Welcoming them, zim, em, hir. . .<\/h3>\r\nAs health care practitioners, we are bound by our codes of ethics to not only <em>do no harm<\/em> but also to place primacy on the emotional, psychological, social, and physical well being of our clients. Our choice of language can inadvertently cause harm to clients of nondominant sexual orientation or gender identity. It is our responsibility to raise our awareness of cultural diversity and to use inclusive and anti-discriminatory language in all of our written and verbal communications.\r\n\r\nIf you are unfamiliar with gender identity issues and the implications for language use, have a look at the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/writeworld.org\/post\/41405517282\/using-gender-neutral-pronouns-in-your-writing\">WriteWorld - <em>Using Gender-Neutral Pronouns in Your Writing: Basics for Beginners<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/uwm.edu\/lgbtrc\/support\/gender-pronouns\/\">University of Wisconsin Milwaukee Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender Resource Centre - <em>Gender Pronouns<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/lgbt.wisc.edu\/documents\/LGBTCC-Gender_pronoun_guide.pdf\">University of Wisconsin-Madison LGBT Campus Centre - <em>Gender Pronouns Guide<\/em><\/a><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/mashable.com\/2015\/10\/18\/transgender-ally-words\/?utm_cid=mash-com-fb-main-link#S7KBFquW0kq8\"><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"modifiers\"><\/a>Appropriate placement of modifiers<\/h2>\r\nReview the section on <a href=\"#components\">Components of a Sentence<\/a> above to remind yourself of what modifiers that function like adverbs or adjectives look like. <em>Without understanding what a modifier is<\/em>, it is hard not to misplace them. Notice that the portion in italics is a <em>dangling modifier<\/em> because there is nothing in the sentence to\u00a0<em>hang\u00a0<\/em>it on. The word\u00a0<em>it<\/em> does not specify whom the actor is. Restating the sentence in active voice helps resolve the problem: <em>Without understanding what a modifier is<\/em>, I find it hard not to misplace them.\r\n\r\nRead Section 3.21 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> and review <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/597\/01\/\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab -\u00a0 <em>Dangling Modifiers and How to Correct Them<\/em><\/a>. Table 3.6 summarizes the key principles for appropriate placement of modifiers.\r\n<h3>Table 3.6. <em>Principles for Appropriate Placement of Modifiers<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Place the modifier as close as possible to the word you want it to refer to [to avoid a misplaced modifier]<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">Without looking at the test results<\/span><\/strong>, the teacher instructed the students to complete the next section. [modifies <em>teacher<\/em>].\r\nThe teacher instructed the students to complete the next section, <strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">without looking at the test results<\/span><\/strong>. [modifies <em>students<\/em>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Be sure there is a referent for the modifier in the sentence [to avoid a dangling modifier]<\/td>\r\n<td>The results of this study, <strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">in keeping with current research<\/span><\/strong>, link stress to lower self-esteem. [referent = results]\r\nI am more confused than before, <strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">after looking at these examples<\/span><\/strong>! [referent = I - so it should be re-positioned]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Write in the active voice so that the modifiers have a referent within the sentence<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">After traveling for several weeks<\/span><\/strong>, I finally saw the ocean come into view. [The referent \u2018I\u2019 is required to anchor the modifier \u2013 versus: \"After traveling for several weeks, the ocean came into view.\"]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise5\"><\/a>Exercise 5<\/h3>\r\nComplete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex5\">Exercise 5<\/a> to test your understanding of how to properly structure your sentences. Review <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex5a\">Exercise 5 Answers<\/a> for corrections. <span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>What's the point?<\/h3>\r\nRemember, the rationale for refining your writing is to communicate more effectively. Most instructors will not go searching for misplaced modifiers or lack of agreement between your nouns and pronouns. Instead, they will read a sentence and not be able to discern what you are trying to say. So, whether they point out the grammatical errors or not, your meaning has been lost and with it your success on the assignment!\r\n\r\nIf you require more in-depth writing support, I strongly recommend that you purchase the Fowler and colleagues (2005) handbook listed in the references. If you are an Athabasca University (AU) student, you can also take advantage of personal coaching and writing support through the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/write-site.athabascau.ca\/\">AU Write Site<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"subordinate\"><\/a>Subordinate elements<\/h2>\r\nRead Section 3.22 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, which describes the use of relative pronouns and subordinate conjunctions (see the <a href=\"#components\">Components of a Sentence<\/a>) to introduce clauses or phrases that are subordinate to the main clause. Notice that, in the previous sentence, everything after <em>which<\/em> (a relative pronoun) could be removed, and you would still know what your instructions are! This is a subordinate element of the sentence. Tables 3.7 and 3.8 provide principles for effectively managing subordinate elements.\r\n<h3>Table 3.7. <em>Subordinate Elements Beginning With Relative Pronouns<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Use <em>that<\/em> for restrictive clauses (essential to the meaning)<\/td>\r\n<td>The group <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">that was given the placebo<\/span><\/strong> performed equally well.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Use <em>which<\/em> for non-restrictive clauses (not essential to the meaning) and enclose the clause in commas<\/td>\r\n<td>The group<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">, which met in the foyer,<\/span><\/strong> formed a solid bond over the day.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3>Table 3.8. <em>Subordinate Elements Beginning With Subordinate Conjunctions<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Use <em>while<\/em> only to refer to something that happened at the same time as something else<\/td>\r\n<td>I tried to complete the exercises <strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">while I was writing my paper<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Use <em>although, whereas, but,<\/em> or<em> and<\/em> to imply comparison rather than <em>while<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>I tried to complete the exercises, <strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">although I was busy writing my paper<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Use <em>since<\/em> to refer to something that happened after something else<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">Since finishing my paper<\/span><\/strong>, I have tried to complete the exercises.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Use <em>because<\/em> to infer cause and effect rather than <em>since<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>I was unable to complete the exercises <span style=\"color: #339966;\">because I was writing my paper<\/span>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nNotice, that in some of the examples in Table 3.8, the content of the subordinate element is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, so it has be separated off with commas.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"parallel\"><\/a>Parallel construction<\/h2>\r\nIt is important that separate parts of a sentence have a similar construction and for a similar pattern to be used to organize groups of words. Notice that the previous sentence would be easier to read if my pattern was consistent: It is important that <span class=\"red\">separate parts of a sentence<\/span> are constructed and <span class=\"red\">that groups of words are<\/span> organized using a similar pattern. Read Section 3.23 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> and <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/623\/01\/\">Purdue University Online <em>Writing Lab - Parallel Structure<\/em><\/a>. Next consider the general principles in Table 3.9.\r\n<h3>Table 3.9. <em>Principles to Support Parallel Construction<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Keep sentence components (pronouns, verbs, propositions, etc.) in parallel form<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">I struggle<\/span><\/strong> with <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">composing<\/span><\/strong> papers and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">I hate editing<\/span><\/strong> my own work.\r\nThe outcomes were evidence <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">that self-awareness is critical for short-term learning<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">that action is required for long-term change<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">I struggle<\/span><\/strong> with <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">composing<\/span><\/strong> papers and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">hate to edit<\/span><\/strong> my own work.\r\nThe outcomes were evidence <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">that self-awareness is critical for short-term learning and action for long-term change.<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Maintain the same verb tense<\/td>\r\n<td>There were people all over the park, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">bicycling, walking, and engaging<\/span><\/strong> in conversation.<\/td>\r\n<td>There were people all over the park, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">bicycling, walking, and engaged<\/span><\/strong> in conversation.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Maintain the same voice<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Three of the people were wearing<\/span><\/strong> jeans, and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">another person was sporting<\/span><\/strong> a suit.<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Three of the people were wearing<\/span><\/strong> jeans, and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">there was another person in a suit<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>With pairs of coordinating conjunctions, place the first one close to the components it refers to<\/td>\r\n<td>The experienced groups<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><\/span> focused <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>both<\/strong><\/span> <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">on<\/span><\/strong> the task and the timelines.\r\nThe experienced groups focused <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">either <\/span><\/strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">on<\/span><\/span> the task <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">or<\/span><\/strong> on the timelines.<\/td>\r\n<td>The experienced groups <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">both<\/span><\/strong> focused on the task and the timelines. [<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">incorrect if both refers to task and timeline<\/span><\/strong>]\r\nThe experienced groups <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">either<\/span><\/strong> focused on the task or the timelines.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise6\"><\/a>Exercise 6<\/h3>\r\nComplete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex6\">Exercise 6<\/a> to test your understanding of subordinate elements and parallel construction, then check your responses with <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex6a\">Exercise 6 Answers<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nFor further information about common errors that impact the clarity and meaning of sentences, please see the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/common_sentences.php\">AU English Language Handbook<em> - Common Sentence Faults<\/em>.<\/a>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1><a id=\"spelling\"><\/a><strong>Spelling<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<h2><a id=\"misspelled\"><\/a>Correct spelling<\/h2>\r\nSpelling something incorrectly is one way to lose marks on papers, and it is completely avoidable. The <em>APA<\/em> <em>Manual<\/em> recommends that you use <em>Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary<\/em> as your primary resource. You can access it <a href=\"http:\/\/www.m-w.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">online<\/a> quickly and easily. I have also compiled a list of commonly misspelled words in Table 3.10.\r\n<h3>Table 3.10. <em>Commonly Misspelled Words<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Words that Often Confuse<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Examples of Correct Use<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">affect<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">effect<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nI have been trying to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">affect<\/span><\/strong> (verb) your writing skills. I hope my work will have the desired <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">effect<\/span><\/strong> (noun).\r\n\r\nI want to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">effect<\/span><\/strong> (verb) change in her <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">affect<\/span><\/strong> (noun) by diffusing the situation.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principle<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principal<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>High school <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principals<\/span><\/strong> emphasized that there are three core <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principles<\/span><\/strong> for school nursing programs. The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principle<\/span><\/strong> reason for focusing on nursing was\u2026<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">accept<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">except<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>It was difficult for her to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">accept<\/span><\/strong> that all she could do was to listen, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">except<\/span><\/strong> under very specific circumstances.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">its<\/span><\/strong> versus <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>it\u2019s<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td>\n\n<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">It\u2019s<\/span><\/strong> raining outside today and the dog is unhappy about wearing <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">its<\/span><\/strong> raincoat.\r\n\r\n[<a href=\"#contractions\">Avoiding contractions<\/a> is an easy way to side-step this error.]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">enquiry<\/span><\/strong> versus <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>inquiry<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td>There will be an <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">enquiry<\/span><\/strong> into the conduct of the team, and I have received an <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">inquiry<\/span><\/strong> about my participation.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">who\u2019s<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">whose<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Whose<\/span><\/strong> mess is this in the kitchen, and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">who\u2019s<\/span><\/strong> responsible for cleaning it?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">complement<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">compliment<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>She <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">complimented<\/span><\/strong> me on my fairness when I divided the supplies and handed over her <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">complement<\/span><\/strong> of them.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">counsel<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">council<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>The program <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">council<\/span><\/strong> asked her to attend a meeting to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">counsel<\/span><\/strong> them about the upcoming decision.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">discreet<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">discrete<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>There were several <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">discrete<\/span><\/strong> options before them; the challenge was selecting one that would enable them to be as <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">discreet<\/span><\/strong> as possible about their role.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">stationary<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">stationery<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>While she ran in to buy some <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">stationery<\/span><\/strong>, he waited outside in the cold in the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">stationary<\/span><\/strong> car.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">elicit<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">illicit<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>He spent a few hours trying to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">elicit<\/span><\/strong> enough information to know where to find the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">illicit<\/span><\/strong> drugs.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">precedence<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">precedents<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>Other instructors have already set several <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>precedents<\/strong><\/span>, but <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">precedence<\/span><\/strong> is given to the one that best simplifies the process.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">sleight<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">slight<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>His <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">sleight<\/span><\/strong> of hand did not go unnoticed, although she gave only a <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">slight<\/span><\/strong> turn of her head.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">lead<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">led<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">lead<\/span><\/strong> investigator <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">led<\/span><\/strong> the raters through the assessment guidelines. He also took the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">lead<\/span><\/strong> in verifying inter-rater reliability.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">prioritize<\/span><\/strong> (not <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">priorize<\/span><\/strong>)<\/td>\r\n<td>It is important to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">prioritize<\/span><\/strong> your learning goals so that you see clear progress.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3><a id=\"contractions\"><\/a>Avoiding Contractions<\/h3>\r\nOne of the ways to support accurate spelling is avoid using contracts such as it's, who's, and she's or don't, haven't, didn't. Review the links below for helpful advice on avoiding contractions:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/classroom.synonym.com\/can-use-contractions-apa-style-3587.html\">Synonym.com - <em>Can You Use Contractions in APA Style?<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/askus.library.wwu.edu\/a.php?qid=287901\">Western Washington University Libraries - <em>Is It OK To Use Contractions When Writing in APA Style?<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"canadian\"><\/a>Canadian spelling<\/h2>\r\nIt is important that Canadian spelling be used in all graduate papers at Canadian universities. Please note that the spelling checker in Word will flag Canadian spelling as an error (e.g., behaviour). Over time, you can build your own personalized dictionary of words you commonly use. The <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.oxforddictionaries.com\/\">Oxford Dictionary Online<\/a> provides the British (Canadian) spelling when you look up a word. You may also find the following online source of Canadian spelling useful if you want to double-check a word:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.luther.ca\/~dave7cnv\/cdnspelling\/cdnspelling.html\">Dave VE7CNV's - Truly Canadian Dictionary of Canadian Spelling<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn Table 3.11, I have compiled a list of common words that require Canadian spelling. I have also identified general issues so you can watch for additional words that may fall into these categories.\r\n<h3>Table 3.11. <em>Canadian Spelling Guidelines and Examples<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%;\">\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Guidelines<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 100%;\" scope=\"col\">\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Examples<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>our<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>or<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Behaviour, Colour, Endeavour, Favour, Rigour, Vigour\r\n[Note: Rigorous, Vigorous]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>re<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>er<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Centre, Centred, Theatre<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><em><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">l <\/span><\/em><\/strong>versus <em>ll<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Enrol, Model, Skilful<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><em><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">ll <\/span><\/em><\/strong>versus <em>l<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Counselling, Counsellor, Fulfill, Modelling, Skilled<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ze<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>se<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Analyze, Capitalize, Organize, Optimize, Optimization, Organization, Recognize<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ce<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>se<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Advice, Defence, Offence (nouns)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>se<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>ce<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Advise, License (verbs)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>sive<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>cive<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Defensive, Offensive<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>oe <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>e<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Manoeuvre<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>e <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>oe<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Apnea, Fetus, Homeopathy<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>gue <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>g<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Catalogue, Dialogue<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>g <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>ge<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Judgment<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ge <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>g<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Acknowledgement<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ned<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus<em> nt<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Leaned, Learned (verbs)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>que <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus<em> ck<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Cheque (noun)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ck <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus<em> que<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>Check (verb)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<em>Note. <\/em>I have drawn on the following sources to create this list: Barber (2004), Bond (2009), and Cornerstone Word Company (n.d.). Where there was disagreement, I referred to the <em>Canadian Oxford Dictionary<\/em> by Barber.\r\n<h3>Exceptions<\/h3>\r\nIf you are quoting directly from a source that uses American or British spelling, do not change it to Canadian. Keep it exactly as it appears in the original text. The same applies to titles of articles, books, or journals in your reference list. You may also be encouraged by instructors and project supervisors to submit some of your writing for publication. When the time comes, check the location of the publisher of the journal to determine what spelling norms should be used.\r\n<div class=\"note textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Tech Tip<\/strong>\r\n\r\nTo check your spelling and grammar, select the \"Spelling and Grammar\" link under the \"Review\" menu in Microsoft Word. Either highlight the section of text you want to check or just set the cursor at the beginning of your paper and check the whole thing. Spelling errors are generally highlighted in red and grammatical errors are highlighted in green (although this may depend on your Word settings).\r\n\r\nPlease remember that computers are not perfect. Some things will be highlighted that are not errors and other errors will be missed. For example, the word \"colour\" would appear as an error here because I have used the Canadian spelling.\r\n\r\nYou can build your own customized dictionary by simply clicking on the \"Add to dictionary\" button on the spell check. Try it out! Highlight the word \"colour,\" open the spell checker and add the word to your dictionary. The red underline will disappear. Building a customized dictionary will reduce your editing time.\r\n\r\nThe \"Review\" menu also provides a dictionary and thesaurus for your use.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"hyphenation\"><\/a>Hyphenation<\/h2>\r\nYou may also lose marks on spelling through the misuse of hyphens. Read Section 4.13 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, which outlines several key principles for making decisions about hyphens.\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise7\"><\/a>Exercise 7<\/h3>\r\nComplete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex7\">Exercise 7<\/a> to test your understanding of these principles. Check your answers with <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex7a\">Exercise 7 Feedback<\/a>. Remember that it is better to insert a hyphen than to leave one out if the meaning of the sentence is unclear.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"note textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Tech Tip<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBe sure that Microsoft Word has not been set to automatically hyphenate words at the end of sentences. The only hyphens in your paper should be ones you deliberately insert. To remove automatic hyphenation, go to \"Page Layout,\" then \"Page Setup,\" then \"Hyphenation,\" and then select \"None.\"\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1><a id=\"punctuation\"><\/a><strong>Punctuation<\/strong><\/h1>\r\nNow that you know how to structure a sentence well, it is important to select appropriate punctuation to support your intended meaning. Many graduate students encounter challenges with punctuation, in part because APA style is not observed in our day-to-day interactions. However, there are a few simple rules that can eliminate confusion. Read Sections 4.01 to 4.11 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> and then review the punctuation summary tables below. These tables provide you with the more common punctuation rules.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"commas\"><\/a>Commas<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Table 3.12. <em>Appropriate Placement of Commas<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Between items in a series<\/td>\r\n<td>Commas, periods, and dashes are different types of punctuation. [Remember to put the comma before <em>and<\/em>.]<\/td>\r\n<td>Each use of punctuation must be purposeful, and consistent.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>To separate out non-essential elements of a sentence<\/td>\r\n<td>Different types of punctuation, even your use of periods, affect the pacing of your writing. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the sentence still makes sense without <em>even your use of periods<\/em>.<\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<td>Sentences, that run on too long, require additional punctuation. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the meaning of the sentence changes without <em>that run on too long<\/em>, so remove the commas.<\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>To separate two independent clauses<\/td>\r\n<td>Students often misplace commas, or they fail to insert them at all. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that either part of the sentence can stand alone as a complete sentence<\/span>.]<\/td>\r\n<td>Most errors are a result of failing to proofread, or falling into old habits. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that <em>falling into old habits<\/em> cannot stand alone as a complete sentence<\/span>.]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Around the year in exact dates<\/td>\r\n<td>January 5, 2006, is an exact date, but January 2006 is not.<\/td>\r\n<td>January 5, 2006, is an exact date, but January, 2006 is not.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>In large numbers<\/td>\r\n<td>The <em>APA Manual<\/em> could be renamed <em>1,001 not-so-simple rules.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>The <em>APA Manual<\/em> could be renamed <em>1001 not-so-simple rules.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"semicolons\"><\/a>Semicolons<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Table 3.13. <em>Appropriate Placement of Semicolons<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Between independent clauses not joined by a conjunction<\/td>\r\n<td>An independent clause can function as a complete sentence; a dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the semicolon could be replaced by a conjunction like <em>but<\/em> and that each part of the sentence is independent.<\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<td>Some clauses cannot stand alone; without a subject and verb, for example. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that <em>without a subject and verb, for example<\/em> cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.<\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Between items in a series (if commas are already used)<\/td>\r\n<td>Clear punctuation provides structure, clarity, and cadence; directs the reader about when to pause; and indicates what information is essential or non-essential to the meaning.<\/td>\r\n<td>Unclear punctuation can confuse; leave the reader out of breath; and blur the meaning of sentences.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"colons\"><\/a>Colons<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Table 3.14. <em>Appropriate Placement of Colons<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Between an independent clause and a phrase that describes, clarifies, or extends it<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nThere are two punctuation marks that are used most frequently: periods and commas. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the first part could stand alone as a complete sentence.<\/span>]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<td>The two most common punctuation marks are: periods and commas. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">The first part is not an independent clause \u2013 cannot stand alone \u2013 so a colon should not be inserted<\/span>.]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Between an independent clause and a clause that describes, clarifies, or extends it<\/td>\r\n<td>There are two punctuation marks that are used most frequently: They are periods and commas. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that if the second part could form a complete sentence, it starts with a capital letter<\/span>.]<\/td>\r\n<td>There are two punctuation marks that are used most frequently: there are several others that are used less often. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">A semicolon is more appropriate because the second clause does not complete the first; you could use a conjunction like <em>and<\/em> to join them<\/span>.]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>To indicate ratios \/ proportions<\/td>\r\n<td>The ratio of students who need no writing support is about 1:10.<\/td>\r\n<td>1:10 students need no writing support. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">One out of 10 students . . .<\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"quotationmarks\"><\/a>Quotations marks<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Table 3.15. <em>Appropriate Placement of Double Quotation Marks<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>The first time you introduce a coined expression or ironic comment<\/td>\r\n<td>A coined expression like \u201cgrammar grudge\u201d is different from a key term like <em>sentence structure. <\/em>[<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Key terms should appear in italics the first time they are used<\/span>.]<\/td>\r\n<td>You could use quotations to indicate that you \u201clove\u201d grammar but not that you find punctuation \u201ceasier.\u201d [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">The second usage does not reflect irony<\/span>.]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>To indicate the title of an article or chapter<\/td>\r\n<td>Collins and Arthur\u2019s (2010) article, \u201cA Framework for Enhancing Multicultural Counselling Competence\u201d is worth a read.<\/td>\r\n<td>Collins, S., &amp; Arthur, N. (2010). \u201cA framework for enhancing multicultural counselling competence,\u201d <em>Canadian Journal of Counselling . . .\r\n<\/em>[<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Quotation marks should not be used in the reference list, unless they are used within the title.<\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>For verbatim instructions or test items<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nThese should be treated like a normal quotation: \u201cYou will put the material in quotes, but probably won\u2019t have a page number or other citation content.\u201d\r\n\r\n[<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the quotation marks belong outside of the final punctuation - e.g., .\"<\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<td>The following instruction will exceed 40 words so requires block format:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">\u201cIn this case, you do not need the quotations marks so they would be considered an APA error\u2026\u201d<\/p>\r\n[<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">No quotations marks used for block quotes<\/span>.]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Location of quotation marks<\/td>\r\n<td>Collins instructs to \u201cAlways place punctuation marks outside other punctuation marks.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<td>This applies \"even in the middle of a sentence\u201d, which can commonly occur.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nSingle quotation marks should normally not be used in your paper. \"One exception is to indicate 'a quote within a quote,' in which the inside quotation marks should be single, not double.\"\u00a0 Notice that, in both cases, the quotation marks follow the comma or period.\r\n\r\nOveruse of double quotations marks puts you at risk of appearing to quote others when you are not. Use other strategies to place emphasis on particular words or phrases.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"dashes\"><\/a>Dashes<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Table 3.16. <em>Appropriate Placement of the Dash<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>To separate material that disrupts the flow of a sentence<\/td>\r\n<td>The dash \u2013 as demonstrated in this example \u2013 sets apart content that does not flow with the rest of the sentence.<\/td>\r\n<td>The dash \u2013 which you should use infrequently \u2013 can often be replaced by a non-restrictive clause. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">the phrase <em>which you should use infrequently<\/em> would be better contained with commas<\/span>.]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"parentheses\"><\/a>Parentheses<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Table 3.17. <em>Appropriate Placement of Parentheses<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>To separate material that is structurally independent<\/td>\r\n<td>This is a bit different from the dash because material in parentheses tends to be viewed as less important (see the previous table).<\/td>\r\n<td>Parenthetical material may be complete sentences. (In this case, you include the punctuation inside the parentheses.) [There is nothing to suggest that this is a secondary thought that requires parentheses.]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>To contain abbreviations<\/td>\r\n<td>An abbreviation like Faculty of Health Disciplines (FHD) belongs in parentheses.<\/td>\r\n<td>However, if the referent is already in parentheses then use brackets for the abbreviation (Faculty of Health Disciplines (FHD), 2015). [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that this should be <em>[FHD], 2015<\/em><\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>To introduce a list of items<\/td>\r\n<td>Additional examples are provided for (a) mathematical expressions, (b) formulas, (c) statistics, and (d) citations (See <em>APA Manual<\/em> 4.09).<\/td>\r\n<td>Instead of parentheses, brackets should be used for a) inserting material in a quotation and b) material already within parentheses [as noted above]. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Letters in the list should have double parentheses; <em>as noted above<\/em> should be in parentheses, not brackets.<\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"slashes\"><\/a>Slashes<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Table 3.18. <em>Appropriate Placement of the Slash<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>For comparisons where a hyphen is used in the terms already<\/td>\r\n<td>The self-esteem\/self-worth comparison indicated that\u2026<\/td>\r\n<td>The depression\/elation continuum is based on\u2026 [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Use a hyphen for simple comparisons: <em>depression-elation<\/em><\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Only when clarity is not sacrificed<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nThe instructor or course coordinator could answer your question about the test-retest\/inter-rater reliability comparisons.\r\n\r\nAll of these rules apply to writing and\/or editing. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">The meaning of <em>and\/or<\/em> is writing, editing, or both.<span style=\"color: #333333;\">]<\/span><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td>The instructor\/course coordinator could answer your questions. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">The first use makes the sentence less clear. Is the instructor\/course coordinator the same person or can either or both answer your question?<\/span>]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise8\"><\/a>Exercise 8<\/h3>\r\nComplete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex8\">Exercise 8<\/a> to test your understanding of punctuation, and then compare your responses to <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex8a\">Exercise 8 Feedback<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nIf there are areas where you are still unclear, you may find it helpful to review the additional resources in Table 3.19.\r\n<h3>Table 3.19. <em>Additional punctuation resources<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Topic<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Source<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">Punctuation overviews<\/td>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/internal_punc.php\" target=\"_blank\">AU English Language Handbook<em> - Internal Punctuation<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/566\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> - Brief Overview of Punctuation<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">Commas<\/td>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> - Commas: Quick Rules<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/Commas.html\" target=\"_blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center<em> - Using Commas<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">Semicolons<\/td>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/Semicolons.html\" target=\"_blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center<em> - Using Semicolons<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">Commas versus semicolons<\/td>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> - Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">Dashes versus parentheses<\/td>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/Dashes.html\" target=\"_blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center<em> - Using Dashes<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">Plural possessive<\/td>\r\n<td valign=\"top\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/621\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> - The Apostrophe<\/em><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nRemember that if there are differences in editorial rules across resources, you should normally default to the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, except for the Canadian spelling noted above.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1><a id=\"wordformat\"><\/a><strong>Word formatting<\/strong><\/h1>\r\nThe <em>APA Manual<\/em> addresses a number of other editorial issues where the principles used are sometimes specific to the profession. As a result, you will find that various writing tutorials, which may target other audiences, introduce different rules. It is important to review the specific editorial guidelines that apply to writing in the health disciplines.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"capitalization\"><\/a><strong>Capitalization<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nRead Sections 4.14 to 4.20 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> for examples of when to capitalize the words in your paper. Review the capitalization checklist in Table 3.20 for a summary of these principles. Refer to this checklist if you are unsure of where to include capital letters.\r\n<h3>Table 3.20. <em>Capitalization Checklist<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principles<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Examples: Capitalize<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Examples: Do Not Capitalize<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Titles of books or articles<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nIn the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>APA Manual<\/em><\/span><\/strong>, you will find\u2026\r\n\r\nIn the article by Adams, \u201c<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Principles of Self-Awareness<\/span><\/strong>,\u201d they described\u2026<\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Titles of sections within a paper or other document<\/td>\r\n<td>In the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Tables<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Figures<\/span><\/strong> sections of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> some exceptions are noted.<\/td>\r\n<td>In the study process section that addresses <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">hyphenation<\/span><\/strong>, I suggested\u2026<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Proper nouns (not adopted into common language)<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Parse<\/span><\/strong> would have a different perspective on nursing theory than <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Nightingale<\/span><\/strong>. A <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Likert<\/span><\/strong> scale would not be a good tool for assessing this.<\/td>\r\n<td>Terms like <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">french<\/span><\/strong> fries are now part of the common language.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Titles of university departments or academic courses<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Department of Nursing<\/span><\/strong> offers a course called <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Individual Case Management<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<td>However, the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">health studies<\/span><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"> division<\/span><\/strong> does not require this <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">case management<\/span><\/strong> course.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Names of theories, models, approaches<\/td>\r\n<td>There are similarities between <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Ellis\u2019<\/span><\/strong> rational emotive theory and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Beck\u2019s<\/span><\/strong> cognitive therapy model.<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Cognitive-behavioural theory<\/span><\/strong> approaches human nature differently than <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">psychoanalysis<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Specific numbered items<\/td>\r\n<td>There are several examples provided in <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Table 3.2<\/span><\/strong> that reflect the outcomes of <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Test 3<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<td>If you look at <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">column 3<\/span><\/strong>\u2026 I will address these issues on <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">page 6<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Titles of tests<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Canadian Registered Nurse Examination<\/span><\/strong> awaits those who want to license.<\/td>\r\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">lesson post-test<\/span><\/strong> awaits those who want to write well.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Experimental groups or conditions<\/td>\r\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Group A<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Group C<\/span><\/strong> were both given pretests.<\/td>\r\n<td>Participants were exposed to either <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">pretest<\/span><\/strong> or <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">no pretest conditions<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Titles of Factors or Variables<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\n<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Variable 1 (Gender)<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Variable 3 (Age)<\/span><\/strong> had a significant effect on\u2026 (capitalized as part of a numbered series)\r\n\r\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Age x Weight x Sex<\/span><\/strong> variable was... (capitalized because terms are accompanied by multiplication sign)<\/td>\r\n<td>Demographic variables included <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">gender, province of residence<\/span><\/strong>, and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">age<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"abbreviations\"><\/a>Abbreviations<\/h2>\r\nUnderstanding when to use an abbreviation begins with a few basic principles:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The purpose of an abbreviation is to increase clarity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Abbreviations also save space and reduce redundancy when terms are long and complicated.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The meaning of the abbreviation must be clearly defined or commonly understood.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Do not use more than one abbreviation for the same term or concept.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThese basic principles result in specific rules for abbreviation use in various contexts or professions. Review Sections 4.22 to 4.30 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> for details on how to best use them in health disciplines writing. As a general test, ask yourself this question: \"Does this abbreviation make my intended meaning more or less clear to my readers?\"\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"italics\"><\/a>Italics<\/h2>\r\nItalics should be used carefully and infrequently in your papers. [I have use them more frequently in this e-book to point out examples because font colours may not appear on some devices.] The specific uses of italics, outlined in section 4.21 of the APA Manual, which are most likely to apply to your graduate papers, include\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>titles of books or periodicals,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>first introduction of new or important concepts or terms,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>words or phrases introduced as examples, or<\/li>\r\n \t<li>words or phrases that would otherwise be misread.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nResist the urge to use italics for emphasis. Use other grammatical devices and structure your sentences clearly to communicate what you see as important.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a id=\"numbers\"><\/a>Numbers<\/h2>\r\nBased on Sections 4.31 to 4.40 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, here are a few simple rules that you should remember for referring to numbers.\r\n<h3>Table 3.21. <em>Expressing numbers in figures or words<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%;\" scope=\"col\">\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Express the following in figures\r\n(e.g., 5)<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Express the following in words\r\n(e.g., five)<\/h3>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%;\" scope=\"col\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>all numbers 10 and above<\/li>\r\n \t<li>a combination of numbers less than and greater than 10 that occur in the same paragraph (as long as the numbers compare the same thing)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>dates, times, ages, money<\/li>\r\n \t<li>sample sizes<\/li>\r\n \t<li>specific points in numbers series<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>all numbers between zero and nine<\/li>\r\n \t<li>common fractions<\/li>\r\n \t<li>numbers at the beginning of a sentence, title, or heading<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise9\"><\/a>Exercise 9<\/h3>\r\nComplete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex9\">Exercise 9<\/a> to test your understanding of these principles related to capitalization, abbreviations, italics, and numbers. Check your answers with <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex9a\">Exercise 9 Feedback<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1><strong><a id=\"summary\"><\/a>Summary<\/strong><\/h1>\r\nIn <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/how-do-you-generate-and-position-your-ideas\/\">Chapter 2<\/a>, you spent a lot of time focusing on the forest<em>,<\/em> getting the big picture of what your paper would look like and how you would develop a logical and convincing argument for your reader. This chapter has honed in on the trees<em>, <\/em>many of the little details that can influence whether or not those great ideas you developed in <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/how-do-you-generate-and-position-your-ideas\/\">Chapter 2<\/a> are accessible to the reader. The more you are able to fine-tune your writing in these areas, the more meaningful and straightforward your communication will be.\r\n\r\nI expect that this lesson will be a challenge for many students. It was a challenge for me to ensure that I was providing correct examples and feedback on all exercises. However, some of you may experience more difficulty than others with basic written language skills. You may need to engage in further skill development before you can be successful in graduate school. Please search out the resources at your home university. If you are an AU student, take advantage of the resources provided through our <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/write-site.athabascau.ca\/\">Write Site<\/a>.\r\n\r\nNow is a good time to step back again from this detailed revision of your words, your sentences, and your individual paragraphs to reread your paper, looking again for overall flow and ease of understanding. Make sure that your thesis and arguments remain clear. You may want to use the checklist below to wrap up this part of your revision process. I have drawn some of these ideas from Fowler et al. (2005).\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Have you structured each paragraph in a deliberate way to support the key point?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you structured the paper to make the flow of key points in the argument clear?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you made the relationship among various parts of the paper transparent?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you used appropriate transitional devices to support the flow of argument from one paragraph to another?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you written in a concise way, without extraneous words that distract from the meaning?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Is your writing precise and clear, without vague pronouns or jargon that may distract and confuse the reader?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you used appropriate structuring skills to link the various components of the argument (paragraphs) to one another?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you made the intention of the original author clear through the verbs you used?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you chosen consistent verb tense within various sections of the paper?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Does your selection of verb tense fit with the purpose of each section?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Does your sentence structure support clarity and precision of meaning?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Is there agreement between subjects and verbs, nouns and pronouns?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you carefully place modifiers close to the word that they relate to?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you cordoned off subordinate elements with commas so they do not dilute the main message of each sentence?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Are you using parallel construction, voice, and verb tense within each sentence?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have you run a spelling and grammar check? Have you double checked for Canadian spelling or other words that are spelled correctly but used incorrectly?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Does your use of punctuation enhance the flow of meaning in your writing? Have you over or under used certain types of punctuation?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Does your formatting of individual words reflect the guidelines in the <em>APA<\/em> Manual?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<p>Before moving on to editorial style in this chapter, I chose to focus first on writing style in the first two chapters (see the <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/front-matter\/introduction-2\/#style\">Introduction<\/a> for a reminder of the difference). I have made this choice because of the logical flow of the writing process and because the content of your message is the most important element of your paper. Placing too much emphasis on editorial style early on can stifle your creativity, cause unnecessary anxiety, and restrict your freedom to make and learn from your mistakes. As Fowler and colleagues (2005) noted, &#8220;writing is not only, or even mainly, a matter of correctness&#8221; (p. 20).<\/p>\n<p>Where editorial style becomes important is in the effective communication of the message you create to others. At this point, you have a draft of your paper, based on your work in <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/what-do-we-mean-by-professional-writing\/\">Chapter 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/how-do-you-generate-and-position-your-ideas\/\">Chapter 2<\/a>. You have taken a break from your research to craft a thesis statement and to organize the ideas you have gathered under the various key points and sub-points in your argument. You also have a sense of the gaps you need to fill to support your argument. You can keep working on finding additional support in the scholarly literature as you begin to refine what you have already written.<\/p>\n<p>In this chapter, I introduce some of the core elements of editorial style, drawing heavily on the <em>APA Manual<\/em> and other online resources designed to help you improve the quality of your writing. The techniques below are designed to add clarity, flow, and structure to your paper with a view to making it more meaningful to the reader. Some students decide to ignore APA formatting and forfeit that percentage of their grade; what they do not realize is that writing and editorial skills may also impact the remaining portion of their grade. Your ability to demonstrate critical thinking, to reflect the levels of learning targeted in the course assignment, and to clearly and effectively articulate an argument is directly related to the quality of the writing in your paper. If you have a great idea, but you are not able to articulate it clearly, your instructor likely will not get it!<\/p>\n<p>You can use the links below to quickly access information on any of the topics covered:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#paragraph\">Developing strong paragraphs<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#flow\">Creating flow (key point and sub-points)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#transitional\">Transitional devices (pronouns \/ transitional words)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#clarity\">Clarity and conciseness <\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#structuring\">Structuring skills<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#verbs\">Using verbs effectively<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#verbsource\">Using verbs that reflect your information source<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#verbtense\">Selecting verb tense<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#sentence\">Sentence structure<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#components\">Basic components of a sentence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#fragments\">Sentence fragments (incomplete sentences)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#subverb\">Agreement between subject and verb<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#nounpro\">Agreement between noun and pronoun<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#modifiers\">Appropriate placement of modifiers<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#subordinate\">Subordinate elements<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#parallel\">Parallel construction<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#spelling\">Spelling<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#misspelled\">Commonly misspelled words<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#canadian\">Canadian spelling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#hyphenation\">Hyphenation<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#punctuation\">Punctuation<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#commas\">Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#semicolons\">Semicolons<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#colons\">Colons<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#quotationmarks\">Quotations marks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#dashes\">Dashes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#dashes\">Parentheses<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#slashes\">Slashes<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#wordformat\">Word formatting<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#capitalization\">Capitalization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#abbreviations\">Abbreviations<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#italics\">Italics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#numbers\">Numbers<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#summary\">Summary<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1><strong><a id=\"paragraph\"><\/a>Developing strong paragraphs<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p>My focus in this chapter is on the revision phase of the writing process. I emphasize the importance of carefully examining both the content and structure of the paper to ensure that you meet the standards for graduate academic writing. You can now take your draft paper and begin to carefully revise it. Once you find enough information about a particular point, you may start refining your paragraphs.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"flow\"><\/a>Creating flow from your key point to sub-points<\/h2>\n<p>For some ideas about how to develop a good paragraph, see the <a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/606\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab &#8211; <em>On Paragraphs<\/em><\/a>. Please also review the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.writing.utoronto.ca\/advice\/planning-and-organizing\/paragraphs\" target=\"_blank\">University of Toronto Writing Workshop &#8211; <em>Paragraphs<\/em><\/a> and pay attention to the importance of beginning each paragraph with one of the key points in your argument (referred to as a topic sentence). In your topic sentence, you describe the element of your overall argument that you plan to address in the paragraph. If you find yourself moving away from your key point, start a new paragraph! As a general rule of thumb, restrict your paragraphs to about half a page in length, with one key point per paragraph and a number of supporting or sub-points. The reader will likely lose focus on your key point if you run beyond one page per paragraph (see the <em>APA Manual<\/em> Section 3.08).<\/p>\n<p>You can organize the sub-points in your paragraph in a number of ways (Fowler et al., 2005):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>general to specific or specific to general;<\/li>\n<li>chronologically, from most recent to oldest or vice versa;<\/li>\n<li>simplest to most complex or most complex to simplest;<\/li>\n<li>most important to least important or least important to most important; or<\/li>\n<li>most familiar to least familiar or vice versa.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>For more information about how to write effective paragraphs using some of these organizational strategies, see the <a href=\"http:\/\/web.uvic.ca\/wguide\/Pages\/MasterToc.html#Paragraphs\" target=\"_blank\">University of Victoria Writer&#8217;s Guide &#8211; <em>Developing and Ordering Paragraphs<\/em><\/a>. In the examples in Figure 3.1 below, notice the difference in flow of the paragraphs when they are organized in different ways. The unorganized paragraph below is the least clear and meaningful!<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<p><strong>Thesis statement<\/strong>: Navigating end-of-life care with patients or clients requires reflexivity and self-awareness as well as openness to the worldview and lived experiences of the patient or client.<\/p>\n<p><strong>General to specific:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Health care practitioners cannot respond effectively and ethically to patients or clients at the end of their lives without critical reflection on their own beliefs, values, and potential biases about life and death<\/em>. [<span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><strong>This is my key point for this paragraph.<\/strong><span style=\"color: #000000;\">] Practitioners all hold attitudes, beliefs, or assumptions about health that can influence care for patients or clients. To a large degree, those elements of our worldview are shaped by the cultures in which we live, as well as by our own cultural identities (age, ability, socioeconomic status, religion, and so on). Many cultures embrace death as a natural part of the life cycle; others, particularly Western cultures, lean towards a collective phobia about death. Health care practitioners are more likely to allow their own beliefs and biases to surface when situations touch on heavy emotions or deeply ingrained beliefs, which often accompany end-of-life experience and choices. They must bring those perspectives into conscious awareness to avoid directly or indirectly imposing their values on patients or clients. The practice of reflexivity invites critical evaluation of their own reactions before, during, and after encounters with patients or clients to ensure that client needs and worldviews are prioritized in their care.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong>Unorganized<\/strong>:<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Many cultures embrace death as a natural part of the life cycle; others, particularly Western cultures, lean towards a collective phobia about death. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Health care practitioners are more likely to allow their own beliefs and biases to surface when situations touch on heavy emotions or deeply ingrained beliefs, which often accompany <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">end-of-life<\/span><\/span> experience and choices. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The practice of reflexivity invites critical evaluation of their own reactions before, during, and after encounters with patients or clients to ensure that client needs and worldviews are prioritized in their care.<\/span><\/span> <em>Health care practitioners cannot respond effectively and ethically to patients or clients at the end of their lives without critical reflection on their own beliefs, values, and potential biases about life and death<\/em>. <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Practitioners all hold attitudes, beliefs, or assumptions about health that can influence care for patients or clients. They must<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\"> bring those perspectives into conscious awareness to avoid directly or indirectly imposing their values on patients or clients.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">To a large degree, those elements of our worldview are shaped by the cultures in which we live, as well as by our own cultural identities (age, ability, socioeconomic status, religion, and so on). <\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong>Most familiar to least familiar:<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Health care practitioners cannot respond effectively and ethically to patients or clients at the end of their lives without critical reflection on their own beliefs, values, and potential biases about life and death<\/em>. <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The practice of reflexivity invites critical evaluation of their own reactions before, during, and after encounters with patients or clients to ensure that client needs and worldviews are prioritized in their care.<\/span><\/span> <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Practitioners all hold attitudes, beliefs, or assumptions about health that can influence care for patients or clients. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">They must bring those perspectives into conscious awareness to avoid directly or indirectly imposing their values on patients or clients. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Health care practitioners are more likely to allow their own beliefs and biases to surface when situations touch on heavy emotions or deeply ingrained beliefs, which often accompany <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">end-of-life<\/span><\/span> experience and choices. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">To a large degree, those elements of our worldview are shaped by the cultures in which we live, as well as by our own cultural identities (age, ability, socioeconomic status, religion, and so on).\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Many cultures embrace death as a natural part of the life cycle; others, particularly Western cultures, lean towards a collective phobia about death. <\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3><em>Figure 3.1<\/em>. Ways to organize sub-points within a paragraph.<\/h3>\n<p>The type of organizational structure you chose does not matter; what matters is that you have a logical flow in your paragraph so that the reader understands your key point and sub-points.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"transitional\"><\/a>Using transitional devices<\/h2>\n<p>Using transitional words will increase the logical flow of ideas within a particular paragraph (<em>APA Manual<\/em> Section 3.05). There are two types of transitional words.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pronouns<\/strong> may be used to link one sentence to the content of another. Here are two examples:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"red\">Wiseman<\/span> (2003) stated that it is important for health practitioners to be familiar with provincial health regulations. <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\" class=\"red\">She<\/span><\/strong> noted that even the regulations pertaining to other health professions provide useful information.<\/li>\n<li>Wiseman (2003) stated that provincial <span class=\"red\">health regulations should be included in health disciplines training<\/span>. <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\" class=\"red\">They<\/span><\/strong> often provide useful information that can be applied across health professions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In both examples above, you can tell which noun I am referencing in the previous sentence, and the pronoun I choose matches that noun (Wiseman . . . She . . . : health regulations. . . They . . . ). In the following example, it is unclear which noun from the first sentence is being referenced (Wiseman and colleagues or health regulations), so the meaning is blurred.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"red\">Wiseman and colleagues<\/span> (2003) stated that it is important for health practitioners to be familiar with provincial <span class=\"red\">health regulations<\/span>. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span class=\"red\">They<\/span><\/span> often provide useful information.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Transitional words<\/strong> may also be used at the beginning of sentences to provide a link based on time, place, cause, purpose, and so on. Here is an example:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Wiseman (2003) stated that it is important for health practitioners to be familiar with provincial health regulations. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span class=\"red\">In addition<\/span><\/span>, some federal laws provide guidance in areas not covered under provincial legislation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>If you have trouble identifying new ways to say &#8220;In addition to,&#8221; or if you are not clear about which transitional word to use, review the tips on the following Web sites:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/Transitions.html\" target=\"_blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison&#8217;s Writing Center &#8211; <em>Transitional Words and Phrases<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/574\/02\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University&#8217;s Online Writing Lab &#8211; <em>Transitional Devices<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise1\"><\/a>Exercise 1<\/h3>\n<p>Complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex1\">Exercise 1<\/a> to test your understanding of when to use transitional words to enhance meaningfulness in your paper. The <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex1a\">Exercise 1 Feedback<\/a> provides an idea of how the paragraph might be improved.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"clarity\"><\/a>Writing with clarity and conciseness<\/h2>\n<p>Many graduate students struggle to write with precision. You may need to eliminate words that distract from your intended meaning and choose words that clearly communicate that meaning.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Conciseness or economy of expression<\/strong>. Many writers, even those who have been at it for a long time, find it challenging, sometimes almost impossible, to say things effectively, even when they specifically set out to do so, without using so many extra and unnecessary words. Did you catch my illustration of this point? As a result, their meaning becomes lost. Take a moment to read through Section 3.08 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> for some tips on how to be more concise in your writing.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Precision and Clarity<\/strong>. Many writers also find it challenging to use language effectively to communicate exactly what they mean. Section 3.09 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> introduces a number of strategies for increasing the precision of your writing. Here are some pitfalls that graduate students commonly encounter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Vague pronouns. <\/strong>&#8220;Great writers create happy readers. <strong>They<\/strong> value precision and clarity.&#8221; It is unclear whether <em>They <\/em>refers to the writers or the readers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Editorial <em>we. <\/em><\/strong>&#8220;We should all be careful to write what we actually mean.&#8221; Who is the <em>We<\/em> in this sentence?<\/li>\n<li><strong>Jargon.<\/strong> &#8220;Alberta companies are engaged in redundancy elimination in response to right-sizing pressures.&#8221; There are more clear ways to say that layoffs are taking place. Professional jargon should also be avoided (or at least defined) because it may not be common knowledge for the reader.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Anthropomorphism. <\/strong>&#8220;The local charities in Victoria are doing a lot of Syrian refugees.&#8221; &#8220;The study argues that significant changes have occurred in nursing practice.&#8221; It is the members or boards of the charities (human beings) who are doing this work. Avoid attributing human characteristics or actions to organizations, animals, objects, or other inanimate subjects.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>You may want to check out these additional resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/635\/1\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University&#8217;s Online Writing Lab &#8211; <em>Paramedic Method: A Lesson in Writing Concisely<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/ClearConciseSentences.html\" target=\"blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison&#8217;s Writing Center &#8211; <em>Writing Clear, Concise Sentences<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise2\"><\/a>Exercise 2<\/h3>\n<p>As a test of your understanding of these concepts, complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex2\">Exercise 2<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex2a\">Exercise 2 Feedback<\/a> provides my suggested changes. You may find additional ways to improve this text.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"structuring\"><\/a>Structuring skills<\/h2>\n<p>Using structuring skills is another way to enhance the meaning and flow of your paper. These skills are used predominantly to connect paragraphs or sections of your paper to one another.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">If you have taken an interpersonal communications skills course, you have likely been introduced to a number of verbal skills that are designed to help you effectively and purposefully communicate your ideas and facilitate dialogue with others. A number of these same skills are very useful for creating a clear and logical flow of ideas in your written work.<\/div>\n<p>The structuring skills in Table 3.1 are designed to increase the meaningfulness and logical flow of your paper. The person reading your paper should be able to see the logical sequence of arguments by simply reading the topic sentences (key points) of each paragraph and the structuring skills used throughout your paper.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.1. <em>Structuring Skills for Enhancing Meaning and Flow<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Skill<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Description<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Overview<\/td>\n<td>An overview is a short statement at the beginning of a section or at a transition point within a paper that outlines the key points that are to follow. This helps the reader to understand the structure of the paper and develop realistic expectations as to what the paper will accomplish.<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>This section describes the conceptualization of human nature from a humanistic perspective.<\/p>\n<p>I will now review the literature on feminist approaches to change, followed by a discussion of how these approaches differ from humanistic strategies.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Transition<\/td>\n<td>A transition is a short statement that signals a change in topic or direction in a paper.<\/td>\n<td>This review of the change process leads naturally to a discussion of how outcomes are measured within each model.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Summary<\/td>\n<td>Summaries include a statement or statements that review or pull together the essence of several paragraphs or sections of a paper. Summaries often occur at the end of a paper or at a transition point within the paper. Summaries encapsulate the arguments presented, rather than listing them again. They help the reader capture the bottom line and serve to wrap up a particular portion of a paper.<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>Each of the methods described above is based on the underlying assumption that human nature is basically good and that change is possible.<\/p>\n<p>Based on the description of the change processes above, I conclude that feminist theorists most often place the locus of change at the systems level. This contrasts dramatically with the assumption of the primacy of self in the humanistic therapies described in the first section of the paper.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Summary + Transition<\/td>\n<td>In many cases, you will find it useful to combine these structuring skills. For example, placing a summary at the end of a section, followed by a transition or an overview of the next section, provides additional clarity and flow.<\/td>\n<td>Each of the techniques outlined in this section targeted change at the level of the individual client. The next section will focus on intervention strategies that expand the target of change to include systems (e.g., groups, organizations, or social systems).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise3\"><\/a>Exercise 3<\/h3>\n<p>Complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex3\">Exercise 3 <\/a>to apply these concepts to a sample text. The <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex3a\">Exercise 3 Feedback<\/a> provides one example of how structuring skills can improve the flow and meaningfulness of the text. Be sure that your responses provide a similar structure.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>You should also avoid paragraphs that contain only one sentence, like this one, because they float in space without meaningful connection to your argument.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>The sandwich technique<\/h3>\n<p>Think of each paragraph as a sandwich! You should be able to read the first and last sentence of each paragraph in your paper and understand the thesis and key arguments presented. If you cannot, then you need to include additional structuring skills. Check this out by reviewing only the structuring skills from <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex3a2\">Exercise 3<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>You will notice that I have deliberately not used standard formats for the structuring skills (e.g., In this paragraph, I will discuss\u2026). At the outset, you may find it easier to follow these formats, but you will discover that your paper is more enjoyable to read if you vary your style.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"verbs\"><\/a><strong>Using verbs effectively<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p>Verbs are one element of a sentence that can either increase or decrease meaning. The <em>APA Manual<\/em> also specifies a number of editorial expectations for your use of verbs and verb tenses.<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"verbsource\"><\/a>Using verbs that reflect the nature of your information source<\/h2>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/what-do-we-mean-by-professional-writing\/\">Chapter 1<\/a>, the issue of intellectual honesty was introduced, and you were cautioned to treat the work of other writers respectfully. You must also carefully choose verbs that accurately reflect your information source (see <em>APA Manual<\/em> Section 1.13). When you are drawing on research studies to support your points, it is appropriate to simply list the sources after each of your assertions. Here is an example:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>A significant correlation exists between self-esteem and self-efficacy (Brown &amp; Woods, 2003; Frankel, 2005; Warrens et al., 2001).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>However, in many cases, journal articles and other information sources reflect the opinions or hypotheses of the authors. In such cases, be careful to select verbs that indicate to the reader the nature of the original information.<\/p>\n<div>\n<ul>\n<li>Collins (2006) argued that writing skills have a dramatic effect on success in graduate education.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li>A number of authors speculated that globalization would soon require an expansion of professional ethics to address fundamental human rights at the international level (Martins &amp; Perez, 2006; Pettifor, 2005).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"verbtense\"><\/a>Selecting verb tense<\/h2>\n<p>Students often struggle with verb tense in their papers. Read Sections 3.06 and 3.18 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>. Table 3.2 contains suggestions about which verb tense to use in various parts of your paper. In most cases, you will not be reporting on your own research, so the procedures and results may not apply. You are also not expected to provide an abstract for most course assignments.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.2 <em>Verb Tense and Elements of Your Paper<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Section of Paper<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Verb Tense<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Criteria<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td rowspan=\"3\">Abstract<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Past<\/td>\n<td>Refers to your study or paper as an event in the past (now completed)<\/td>\n<td>The study <strong>explored<\/strong> the differences in worldview between rural and urban teachers. Significant differences <strong>existed<\/strong> between those individuals who\u2026<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>and<\/em><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>and<\/em><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>and<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Present<\/td>\n<td>Refers to any conclusions or implications you draw in the present<\/td>\n<td>It is important to include a discussion of values and biases in teacher education programs.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td rowspan=\"3\">\n<p>Introduction,<\/p>\n<p>Literature Review, and<\/p>\n<p>Procedures<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Past<\/td>\n<td>Refers to an event, action, or circumstance at a specific time the past<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>Withrow (2006) <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">noted<\/span><\/strong> that female participants tended to respond more frequently than male participants.<\/p>\n<p>Participants <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">completed<\/span><\/strong> a series of self-assessment questionnaires.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>or<\/em><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>or<\/em><\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>or<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Present perfect<\/td>\n<td>Refers to an event, action, or circumstance that did not occur at a specific time the past or that started in the past and continues into the present<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>Several studies <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">have indicated<\/span><\/strong> a link between self-esteem and early childhood social supports.<\/p>\n<p>This methodology <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">was<\/span><\/strong> effective in soliciting consistent response patterns from participants.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Results<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Past<\/td>\n<td>Results of your study occurred in the past<\/td>\n<td>Each group <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">responded<\/span><\/strong> to the questionnaire within the timeframe provided.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p>Discussion<\/p>\n<p>and<\/p>\n<p>Conclusions<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\">Present<\/td>\n<td>Refers to your current thinking about the issues and invites others into that discussion<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>This study <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">shows<\/span><\/strong> evidence of a connection between worldview and preferred intervention strategy.<\/p>\n<p>Several implications <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">arise<\/span><\/strong> from the differences in perceived well-being among these groups.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The purpose of selecting and consistently using specific verb tenses is to facilitate effective communication. In most cases, when you are reporting on published research, you will be speaking in the past tense, because these were arguments made by these individuals at a particular point in time. If you need further information about how to write in a particular verb tense, please see the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/verbs.php\">Athabasca University English Grammar Handbook<em> &#8211; Verbs<\/em>.<\/a> Follow the patterns outlined for various components of your paper. Switching verb tense within a paragraph or section will interrupt the flow of your paper and may reduce effective communication of your meaning to the reader. You also risk misrepresenting the nature of your information sources.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"sentence\"><\/a><strong>Sentence structure<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p>The way you structure your sentences can have a dramatic effect on how well your paper reads. Remember, writing is about communicating meaning. Very simply, poor sentence structure can distract or confuse the reader, and your meaning may suddenly be lost. Composing a clear and meaningful sentence involves organizing the various components of your sentence properly.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"components\"><\/a>Basic components of a sentence<\/h2>\n<p>If you are like most graduate students, it has probably been a long time since you have reviewed basic grammar rules. Even the parts of a sentence may no longer be easy for you to identify. Review the definitions in Table 3.3 to facilitate your understanding of sentence structure (adapted from Fowler et al., 2005, pp. 159-160).<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.3. <em>Basic Components of a Sentence<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Component<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Definition<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Nouns<\/td>\n<td>Person, place, thing<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>George<\/strong><\/span>, the <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>cat<\/strong><\/span>, lives in <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>Alberta<\/strong><\/span>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Pronouns<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>Substitutes for nouns, either personal or relative<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<td>\n<p><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>He<\/strong><\/span> is a happy cat (personal).<\/p>\n<p>George enjoys lounging on the window, <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>which<\/strong><\/span> faces the street (relative).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Verbs<\/td>\n<td>Actions, occurrences, states of being<\/td>\n<td>He <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>moves<\/strong><\/span> slowly (action). He <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>has become<\/strong><\/span> less energetic over time (occurrence). However, he <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>is<\/strong><\/span> content (state of being).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Adjectives<\/td>\n<td>Describe or modify nouns or pronouns<br \/>\n(quantity, quality, etc.)<\/td>\n<td>He is a <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>lazy<\/strong><\/span> cat and the <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>only<\/strong><\/span> cat in the house.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Adverbs<\/td>\n<td>Describe or modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or groups of words (where, when, how, etc.)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>Oddly<\/strong><\/span>, George moves <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>even more<\/strong><\/span> slowly when a <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>very<\/strong><\/span> plump spider <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>quietly<\/strong><\/span> crawls down the wall.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Prepositions<\/td>\n<td>Connect nouns or pronouns to other components of a sentence<\/td>\n<td>Three baby spiders crawl along <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>behind<\/strong><\/span> the plump spider.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Conjunctions<\/td>\n<td>Link words, phrases, or clauses:<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Coordinating conjunctions link equally important elements<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>George wiggles <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>and<\/strong><\/span> squirms, <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>but<\/strong><\/span> he can not get his paws to move (coordinating).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Correlative conjunctions also link equally important elements<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>Neither<\/strong><\/span> his front paws <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>nor<\/strong><\/span> his back paws budge.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Subordinating conjunctions link less important elements to the main element<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>George is very surprised <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>because<\/strong><\/span> he is usually not this slow!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Modifiers<\/td>\n<td>A word or group of words that adds information about another word or phrase:<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Adjectives or phrases that act as adjectives<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>Cats <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>that suffer from such paralysis<\/strong><\/span> are rare (acts as an adjective).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Adverbs or phrases that act as adverbs<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>George is brave <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">i<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">n every other situation<\/span><\/span><\/strong> (acts as an adverb).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>You will have difficulty following the grammar rules in the <em>APA Manual<\/em> or other writing resources if you do not understand these basic elements of sentences. For further information, or for definitions of terms not appearing on this list, see the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/basic_grammar.php\">Athabasca University English Grammar Handbook<em> &#8211; Basic Grammar: Parts of Speech<\/em>.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"fragments\"><\/a>Sentence fragments (incomplete sentences)<\/h2>\n<p>You may find yourself getting feedback that you are not writing in complete sentences. To create a sentence, you must include both a <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong><span class=\"red\">subject<\/span><\/strong><\/span> (a noun or pronoun) and a <span style=\"color: #339966;\"><em><strong><span class=\"blue\">verb<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\" class=\"red\">She<\/span> <span style=\"color: #339966;\"><em><span class=\"blue\">cried<\/span><\/em><\/span><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\" class=\"red\">test<\/span> <span style=\"color: #339966;\"><em><span class=\"blue\">was<\/span><\/em><\/span><\/strong> difficult.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong><span class=\"red\">It<\/span><\/strong><\/span> <span style=\"color: #339966;\"><em><strong><span class=\"blue\">will be<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/span> difficult to see the outcome.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following are not sentences because they are missing either a subject or a verb.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Critical incident <span class=\"red\">reports<\/span> in many classical experiments. [no verb]<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"blue\">Running<\/span> and <span class=\"blue\">hiding<\/span>. [No subject]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>When you start a sentence with a <strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\" class=\"purple\">subordinating conjunction<\/span><\/strong> or a <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\" class=\"green\">relative pronoun<\/span><\/em><\/strong>, you must ensure it is still a complete sentence. The following are not sentences even though they may contain a <span class=\"red\">subject<\/span> and a <span class=\"blue\">verb<\/span>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\" class=\"purple\">Because<\/span><\/strong> <span class=\"red\">she<\/span> <span class=\"blue\">cried<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333399;\"><strong><span class=\"purple\">In spite of<\/span><\/strong><\/span> the fact that the <span class=\"red\">test<\/span> <span class=\"blue\">was<\/span> difficult.<\/li>\n<li><strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\" class=\"green\">Who<\/span><\/em><\/strong> <span class=\"blue\">found<\/span> it difficult to see the outcome.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise4\"><\/a>Exercise 4<\/h3>\n<p>Complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex4\">Exercise 4<\/a> to make sure you have a good understanding of how to structure a complete sentence and to ensure you have the vocabulary necessary to follow other guidelines for effective writing. Check your responses with <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex4a\">Exercise 4 Feedback<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>For more detailed information on sentence structure, see <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/recognition_of_sentence_parts.php\">Athabasca University&#8217;s English Grammar Handbook-<em> Sentences and Grammar<\/em>.<\/a> You may also want to review examples of how to correctly form more complex sentences through the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/604\/01\/\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> &#8211; Sentence Punctuation Patterns<\/em>.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>If you want further information on sentence fragments, please see the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/ucalgary.ca\/ssc\/files\/ssc\/wss_fragments_2013.pdf\">University of Calgary Writing Support Services &#8211; <em>Identifying and Fixing Sentence Fragments<\/em>.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"subverb\"><\/a>Agreement between the subject and verb<\/h2>\n<p>Read Sections 3.19 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, then review <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/599\/01\/\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> &#8211; Making Subjects and Verbs Agree<\/em>.<\/a> The basic principle is that both the subject and the verb must be either singular or plural. Where errors occur is typically in mistaking a noun (the subject) as either singular or plural. <span style=\"color: #333333;\">Table 3.4 summarizes some of the grammatical rules related to agreement between <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">subject<\/span><\/strong> and <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">verb<\/span><\/strong><\/em>.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.4. <em>Principles for Subject-Verb Agreement<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Subject and verb must agree \u2013 singular or plural<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">animals<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">play<\/span><\/strong><\/em> well together.<br \/>\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">cat<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">plays<\/span><\/strong><\/em> well by himself.<br \/>\nThere <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">are<\/span><\/strong><\/em> three <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>dogs<\/strong><\/span> playing.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Watch out for plural nouns that may appear singular such as data or ethics<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">ethics<\/span><\/strong> of each member <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> what binds them together.<br \/>\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">data<\/span><\/strong> <em><span style=\"color: #339966;\"><strong>are<\/strong><\/span><\/em> consistent with other findings.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>If subjects are connected by <em>and,<\/em> use the plural form<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">cat and dog<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">play<\/span><\/strong><\/em> well together.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>If subjects are connected by <em>or<\/em> or <em>nor,<\/em> link the verb to the closest subject<\/td>\n<td>Neither the dog nor the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">cats<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">are<\/span><\/strong><\/em> happy.<br \/>\nNeither the cats nor the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">dog<\/span> <em><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/em><\/strong> happy.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ignore phrases that add additional information (including, in addition to\u2026) or qualify the subject (who, which\u2026)<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">evidence<\/span><\/strong> of the crime together with the lack of alibi <em><span style=\"color: #339966;\"><strong>points<\/strong><\/span><\/em> to their guilt.<br \/>\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">response<\/span><\/strong> from all participants <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">was<\/span><\/strong><\/em> similar.<br \/>\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">subject<\/span><\/strong>, which is singular, <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">determines<\/span><\/strong><\/em> the verb format.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Collective nouns (family, group, pair\u2026) are treated as singular if the verb refers to the individuals and plural if the verb refers to the group or collective<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">family<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">head<\/span><\/strong><\/em> off in different directions.<br \/>\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">couple<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> welcomed warmly.<br \/>\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">group<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">does<\/span><\/strong><\/em> not want to participate.<br \/>\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">collection<\/span><\/strong> of items <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">are<\/span><\/strong><\/em> sorted into piles.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Treat words like <em>each<\/em>, <em>every<\/em>, <em>any<\/em>, or <em>some<\/em> as singular<\/td>\n<td>Any <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">person<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> welcome.<br \/>\n<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Everyone<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> welcome.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>The word <span style=\"color: #333333;\"><em>none<\/em><\/span> can be either singular or plural depending on the word that follows<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">None<\/span><\/strong> of the events <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">are<\/span><\/strong><\/em> open.<br \/>\n<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">None<\/span><\/strong> of the news <em><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">is<\/span><\/strong><\/em> good.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"nounpro\"><\/a>Agreement between pronouns and the nouns they replace<\/h2>\n<p>Read Section 3.20 of the <em>APA Manual <\/em>and <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/595\/1\/\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> &#8211; Using Pronouns Clearly<\/em><\/a>. There are several basic principles that you should follow to ensure congruence between <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">nouns<\/span><\/strong> and <em><strong><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">pronouns<\/span><\/strong><\/em>, as outlined in Table 3.5.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.5. <em>Principles for Noun-Pronoun Agreement<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>The pronoun and noun should agree in number<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">participants<\/span><\/strong> exhibited distress when <em><strong><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">they<\/span><\/strong><\/em> were exposed to the stimulus.<br \/>\nIt was unclear whether the other woman or <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">I<\/span><\/strong> was the first to hold up <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">my<\/span><\/em><\/strong> hand. [Notice that the verb is singular]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>The pronoun and noun must agree in gender (See the caveat below on gender neutral pronouns!)<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">Each<\/span><\/strong> of the girls <span style=\"color: #333333;\">believes<\/span> that <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">she<\/span><\/em><\/strong> is the first to arrive. [Notice that the verb is singular]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Use neuter pronouns for animals and inanimate objects<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">scoring card<\/span><\/strong> was prepared in advance, and <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">it<\/span><\/em><\/strong> was available to each observer.<br \/>\nThe <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">horse<\/span><\/strong> <em><strong><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">that<\/span><\/strong><\/em> we had planned to ride was missing.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>If the pronoun is a subject, use <em>who<\/em>; if the pronoun is an object, use <em>whom<\/em><\/td>\n<td>There are <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">three people<\/span><\/strong> here <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">who<\/span><\/em><\/strong> look like the suspect. [<em>who<\/em> is the subject of the verb <em>look<\/em>]<br \/>\nThere are <strong><span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\">three people<\/span><\/strong> here <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">whom<\/span><\/em><\/strong> the inspector identifies as potential suspects. [<em>inspector<\/em> is the subject and <em>whom<\/em> is the object of the verb <em>identifies<\/em>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>When a participle is used as a noun, make the pronoun possessive<\/td>\n<td>The results of the test are not useful because of <strong><em><span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">their<\/span><\/em><\/strong> <span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\"><strong>lowering of the mean<\/strong><\/span>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3><a id=\"they\"><\/a>Beyond APA: <em>They<\/em> as a singular pronoun<\/h3>\n<p>As with most disciplines, English grammar is rooted in Western worldviews that have traditionally treated gender as a binary concept: one is either male or female. Gender diversity (e.g., fluidity and complexity of gender identity) is now well recognized, both in health disciplines literature (American Counselling Association, 2014) and is reinforced by human rights legislation (United Nations Human Rights, n.d., 2014). This is resulting in a slow but critical transformation in language use. Take a moment to review the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.apastyle.org\/apastyle\/2015\/11\/the-use-of-singular-they-in-apa-style.html\">APA Style &#8211; <em>The Use of Singular \u201cThey\u201d in APA Style<\/em><\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>I believe that health practitioners should be taking responsibility for our deliberate use of language to support of cultural diversity and social justice. Here are a few tips for doing so:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Respect the gender identity of your <em>subject <\/em>(in the grammatical sense of the word). If that individual uses the pronouns <em>he <\/em>or <em>she<\/em>, then you should use them. If that person uses the pronoun <em>they<\/em>, then you should mirror their self-identification.<\/li>\n<li>If the gender identity of the subject is unknown, then default to gender-neutral language wherever possible. You can often accomplish this by restructuring your sentence in a way that respects traditional rules of grammar.<\/li>\n<li>Make a conscious statement about gender by defaulting to <em>they <\/em>or <em>them <\/em>rather than <em>he\/she <\/em>or <em>him\/her. <\/em>Here is an example: The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">patient<\/span><\/strong> I saw yesterday listed depression and anxiety as <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">their<\/span><\/strong> presenting concerns. Note: you may need to educate your instructor about this choice.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Welcoming them, zim, em, hir. . .<\/h3>\n<p>As health care practitioners, we are bound by our codes of ethics to not only <em>do no harm<\/em> but also to place primacy on the emotional, psychological, social, and physical well being of our clients. Our choice of language can inadvertently cause harm to clients of nondominant sexual orientation or gender identity. It is our responsibility to raise our awareness of cultural diversity and to use inclusive and anti-discriminatory language in all of our written and verbal communications.<\/p>\n<p>If you are unfamiliar with gender identity issues and the implications for language use, have a look at the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/writeworld.org\/post\/41405517282\/using-gender-neutral-pronouns-in-your-writing\">WriteWorld &#8211; <em>Using Gender-Neutral Pronouns in Your Writing: Basics for Beginners<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/uwm.edu\/lgbtrc\/support\/gender-pronouns\/\">University of Wisconsin Milwaukee Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender Resource Centre &#8211; <em>Gender Pronouns<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/lgbt.wisc.edu\/documents\/LGBTCC-Gender_pronoun_guide.pdf\">University of Wisconsin-Madison LGBT Campus Centre &#8211; <em>Gender Pronouns Guide<\/em><\/a><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/mashable.com\/2015\/10\/18\/transgender-ally-words\/?utm_cid=mash-com-fb-main-link#S7KBFquW0kq8\"><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"modifiers\"><\/a>Appropriate placement of modifiers<\/h2>\n<p>Review the section on <a href=\"#components\">Components of a Sentence<\/a> above to remind yourself of what modifiers that function like adverbs or adjectives look like. <em>Without understanding what a modifier is<\/em>, it is hard not to misplace them. Notice that the portion in italics is a <em>dangling modifier<\/em> because there is nothing in the sentence to\u00a0<em>hang\u00a0<\/em>it on. The word\u00a0<em>it<\/em> does not specify whom the actor is. Restating the sentence in active voice helps resolve the problem: <em>Without understanding what a modifier is<\/em>, I find it hard not to misplace them.<\/p>\n<p>Read Section 3.21 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> and review <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/597\/01\/\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab &#8211;\u00a0 <em>Dangling Modifiers and How to Correct Them<\/em><\/a>. Table 3.6 summarizes the key principles for appropriate placement of modifiers.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.6. <em>Principles for Appropriate Placement of Modifiers<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Place the modifier as close as possible to the word you want it to refer to [to avoid a misplaced modifier]<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">Without looking at the test results<\/span><\/strong>, the teacher instructed the students to complete the next section. [modifies <em>teacher<\/em>].<br \/>\nThe teacher instructed the students to complete the next section, <strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">without looking at the test results<\/span><\/strong>. [modifies <em>students<\/em>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Be sure there is a referent for the modifier in the sentence [to avoid a dangling modifier]<\/td>\n<td>The results of this study, <strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">in keeping with current research<\/span><\/strong>, link stress to lower self-esteem. [referent = results]<br \/>\nI am more confused than before, <strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">after looking at these examples<\/span><\/strong>! [referent = I &#8211; so it should be re-positioned]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Write in the active voice so that the modifiers have a referent within the sentence<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #333399;\">After traveling for several weeks<\/span><\/strong>, I finally saw the ocean come into view. [The referent \u2018I\u2019 is required to anchor the modifier \u2013 versus: &#8220;After traveling for several weeks, the ocean came into view.&#8221;]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise5\"><\/a>Exercise 5<\/h3>\n<p>Complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex5\">Exercise 5<\/a> to test your understanding of how to properly structure your sentences. Review <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex5a\">Exercise 5 Answers<\/a> for corrections. <span style=\"color: #ff00ff;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>What&#8217;s the point?<\/h3>\n<p>Remember, the rationale for refining your writing is to communicate more effectively. Most instructors will not go searching for misplaced modifiers or lack of agreement between your nouns and pronouns. Instead, they will read a sentence and not be able to discern what you are trying to say. So, whether they point out the grammatical errors or not, your meaning has been lost and with it your success on the assignment!<\/p>\n<p>If you require more in-depth writing support, I strongly recommend that you purchase the Fowler and colleagues (2005) handbook listed in the references. If you are an Athabasca University (AU) student, you can also take advantage of personal coaching and writing support through the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/write-site.athabascau.ca\/\">AU Write Site<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"subordinate\"><\/a>Subordinate elements<\/h2>\n<p>Read Section 3.22 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, which describes the use of relative pronouns and subordinate conjunctions (see the <a href=\"#components\">Components of a Sentence<\/a>) to introduce clauses or phrases that are subordinate to the main clause. Notice that, in the previous sentence, everything after <em>which<\/em> (a relative pronoun) could be removed, and you would still know what your instructions are! This is a subordinate element of the sentence. Tables 3.7 and 3.8 provide principles for effectively managing subordinate elements.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.7. <em>Subordinate Elements Beginning With Relative Pronouns<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Use <em>that<\/em> for restrictive clauses (essential to the meaning)<\/td>\n<td>The group <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">that was given the placebo<\/span><\/strong> performed equally well.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Use <em>which<\/em> for non-restrictive clauses (not essential to the meaning) and enclose the clause in commas<\/td>\n<td>The group<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">, which met in the foyer,<\/span><\/strong> formed a solid bond over the day.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Table 3.8. <em>Subordinate Elements Beginning With Subordinate Conjunctions<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Use <em>while<\/em> only to refer to something that happened at the same time as something else<\/td>\n<td>I tried to complete the exercises <strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">while I was writing my paper<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Use <em>although, whereas, but,<\/em> or<em> and<\/em> to imply comparison rather than <em>while<\/em><\/td>\n<td>I tried to complete the exercises, <strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">although I was busy writing my paper<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Use <em>since<\/em> to refer to something that happened after something else<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">Since finishing my paper<\/span><\/strong>, I have tried to complete the exercises.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Use <em>because<\/em> to infer cause and effect rather than <em>since<\/em><\/td>\n<td>I was unable to complete the exercises <span style=\"color: #339966;\">because I was writing my paper<\/span>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Notice, that in some of the examples in Table 3.8, the content of the subordinate element is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, so it has be separated off with commas.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"parallel\"><\/a>Parallel construction<\/h2>\n<p>It is important that separate parts of a sentence have a similar construction and for a similar pattern to be used to organize groups of words. Notice that the previous sentence would be easier to read if my pattern was consistent: It is important that <span class=\"red\">separate parts of a sentence<\/span> are constructed and <span class=\"red\">that groups of words are<\/span> organized using a similar pattern. Read Section 3.23 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> and <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/623\/01\/\">Purdue University Online <em>Writing Lab &#8211; Parallel Structure<\/em><\/a>. Next consider the general principles in Table 3.9.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.9. <em>Principles to Support Parallel Construction<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Keep sentence components (pronouns, verbs, propositions, etc.) in parallel form<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">I struggle<\/span><\/strong> with <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">composing<\/span><\/strong> papers and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">I hate editing<\/span><\/strong> my own work.<br \/>\nThe outcomes were evidence <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">that self-awareness is critical for short-term learning<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">that action is required for long-term change<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">I struggle<\/span><\/strong> with <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">composing<\/span><\/strong> papers and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">hate to edit<\/span><\/strong> my own work.<br \/>\nThe outcomes were evidence <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">that self-awareness is critical for short-term learning and action for long-term change.<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Maintain the same verb tense<\/td>\n<td>There were people all over the park, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">bicycling, walking, and engaging<\/span><\/strong> in conversation.<\/td>\n<td>There were people all over the park, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">bicycling, walking, and engaged<\/span><\/strong> in conversation.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Maintain the same voice<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Three of the people were wearing<\/span><\/strong> jeans, and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">another person was sporting<\/span><\/strong> a suit.<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Three of the people were wearing<\/span><\/strong> jeans, and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">there was another person in a suit<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>With pairs of coordinating conjunctions, place the first one close to the components it refers to<\/td>\n<td>The experienced groups<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><\/span> focused <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>both<\/strong><\/span> <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">on<\/span><\/strong> the task and the timelines.<br \/>\nThe experienced groups focused <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">either <\/span><\/strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">on<\/span><\/span> the task <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">or<\/span><\/strong> on the timelines.<\/td>\n<td>The experienced groups <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">both<\/span><\/strong> focused on the task and the timelines. [<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">incorrect if both refers to task and timeline<\/span><\/strong>]<br \/>\nThe experienced groups <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">either<\/span><\/strong> focused on the task or the timelines.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise6\"><\/a>Exercise 6<\/h3>\n<p>Complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex6\">Exercise 6<\/a> to test your understanding of subordinate elements and parallel construction, then check your responses with <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex6a\">Exercise 6 Answers<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>For further information about common errors that impact the clarity and meaning of sentences, please see the <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/common_sentences.php\">AU English Language Handbook<em> &#8211; Common Sentence Faults<\/em>.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"spelling\"><\/a><strong>Spelling<\/strong><\/h1>\n<h2><a id=\"misspelled\"><\/a>Correct spelling<\/h2>\n<p>Spelling something incorrectly is one way to lose marks on papers, and it is completely avoidable. The <em>APA<\/em> <em>Manual<\/em> recommends that you use <em>Merriam-Webster&#8217;s Collegiate Dictionary<\/em> as your primary resource. You can access it <a href=\"http:\/\/www.m-w.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">online<\/a> quickly and easily. I have also compiled a list of commonly misspelled words in Table 3.10.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.10. <em>Commonly Misspelled Words<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Words that Often Confuse<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Examples of Correct Use<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">affect<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">effect<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>\n<p>I have been trying to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">affect<\/span><\/strong> (verb) your writing skills. I hope my work will have the desired <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">effect<\/span><\/strong> (noun).<\/p>\n<p>I want to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">effect<\/span><\/strong> (verb) change in her <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">affect<\/span><\/strong> (noun) by diffusing the situation.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principle<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principal<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>High school <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principals<\/span><\/strong> emphasized that there are three core <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principles<\/span><\/strong> for school nursing programs. The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">principle<\/span><\/strong> reason for focusing on nursing was\u2026<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">accept<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">except<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>It was difficult for her to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">accept<\/span><\/strong> that all she could do was to listen, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">except<\/span><\/strong> under very specific circumstances.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">its<\/span><\/strong> versus <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>it\u2019s<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td>\n<p><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">It\u2019s<\/span><\/strong> raining outside today and the dog is unhappy about wearing <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">its<\/span><\/strong> raincoat.<\/p>\n<p>[<a href=\"#contractions\">Avoiding contractions<\/a> is an easy way to side-step this error.]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">enquiry<\/span><\/strong> versus <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>inquiry<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td>There will be an <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">enquiry<\/span><\/strong> into the conduct of the team, and I have received an <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">inquiry<\/span><\/strong> about my participation.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">who\u2019s<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">whose<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Whose<\/span><\/strong> mess is this in the kitchen, and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">who\u2019s<\/span><\/strong> responsible for cleaning it?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">complement<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">compliment<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>She <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">complimented<\/span><\/strong> me on my fairness when I divided the supplies and handed over her <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">complement<\/span><\/strong> of them.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">counsel<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">council<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>The program <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">council<\/span><\/strong> asked her to attend a meeting to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">counsel<\/span><\/strong> them about the upcoming decision.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">discreet<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">discrete<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>There were several <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">discrete<\/span><\/strong> options before them; the challenge was selecting one that would enable them to be as <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">discreet<\/span><\/strong> as possible about their role.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">stationary<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">stationery<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>While she ran in to buy some <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">stationery<\/span><\/strong>, he waited outside in the cold in the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">stationary<\/span><\/strong> car.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">elicit<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">illicit<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>He spent a few hours trying to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">elicit<\/span><\/strong> enough information to know where to find the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">illicit<\/span><\/strong> drugs.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">precedence<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">precedents<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>Other instructors have already set several <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>precedents<\/strong><\/span>, but <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">precedence<\/span><\/strong> is given to the one that best simplifies the process.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">sleight<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">slight<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>His <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">sleight<\/span><\/strong> of hand did not go unnoticed, although she gave only a <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">slight<\/span><\/strong> turn of her head.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">lead<\/span><\/strong> versus <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">led<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">lead<\/span><\/strong> investigator <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">led<\/span><\/strong> the raters through the assessment guidelines. He also took the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">lead<\/span><\/strong> in verifying inter-rater reliability.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">prioritize<\/span><\/strong> (not <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">priorize<\/span><\/strong>)<\/td>\n<td>It is important to <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">prioritize<\/span><\/strong> your learning goals so that you see clear progress.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3><a id=\"contractions\"><\/a>Avoiding Contractions<\/h3>\n<p>One of the ways to support accurate spelling is avoid using contracts such as it&#8217;s, who&#8217;s, and she&#8217;s or don&#8217;t, haven&#8217;t, didn&#8217;t. Review the links below for helpful advice on avoiding contractions:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/classroom.synonym.com\/can-use-contractions-apa-style-3587.html\">Synonym.com &#8211; <em>Can You Use Contractions in APA Style?<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/askus.library.wwu.edu\/a.php?qid=287901\">Western Washington University Libraries &#8211; <em>Is It OK To Use Contractions When Writing in APA Style?<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"canadian\"><\/a>Canadian spelling<\/h2>\n<p>It is important that Canadian spelling be used in all graduate papers at Canadian universities. Please note that the spelling checker in Word will flag Canadian spelling as an error (e.g., behaviour). Over time, you can build your own personalized dictionary of words you commonly use. The <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.oxforddictionaries.com\/\">Oxford Dictionary Online<\/a> provides the British (Canadian) spelling when you look up a word. You may also find the following online source of Canadian spelling useful if you want to double-check a word:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.luther.ca\/~dave7cnv\/cdnspelling\/cdnspelling.html\">Dave VE7CNV&#8217;s &#8211; Truly Canadian Dictionary of Canadian Spelling<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In Table 3.11, I have compiled a list of common words that require Canadian spelling. I have also identified general issues so you can watch for additional words that may fall into these categories.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.11. <em>Canadian Spelling Guidelines and Examples<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td style=\"width: 30%;\">\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Guidelines<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 100%;\" scope=\"col\">\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Examples<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>our<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>or<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Behaviour, Colour, Endeavour, Favour, Rigour, Vigour<br \/>\n[Note: Rigorous, Vigorous]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>re<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>er<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Centre, Centred, Theatre<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><em><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">l <\/span><\/em><\/strong>versus <em>ll<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Enrol, Model, Skilful<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><em><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">ll <\/span><\/em><\/strong>versus <em>l<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Counselling, Counsellor, Fulfill, Modelling, Skilled<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ze<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>se<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Analyze, Capitalize, Organize, Optimize, Optimization, Organization, Recognize<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ce<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>se<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Advice, Defence, Offence (nouns)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>se<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>ce<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Advise, License (verbs)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>sive<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus <em>cive<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Defensive, Offensive<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>oe <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>e<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Manoeuvre<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>e <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>oe<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Apnea, Fetus, Homeopathy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>gue <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>g<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Catalogue, Dialogue<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>g <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>ge<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Judgment<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ge <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus <em>g<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Acknowledgement<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ned<\/em><\/span><\/strong> versus<em> nt<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Leaned, Learned (verbs)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>que <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus<em> ck<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Cheque (noun)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>ck <\/em><\/span><\/strong>versus<em> que<\/em><\/td>\n<td>Check (verb)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><em>Note. <\/em>I have drawn on the following sources to create this list: Barber (2004), Bond (2009), and Cornerstone Word Company (n.d.). Where there was disagreement, I referred to the <em>Canadian Oxford Dictionary<\/em> by Barber.<\/p>\n<h3>Exceptions<\/h3>\n<p>If you are quoting directly from a source that uses American or British spelling, do not change it to Canadian. Keep it exactly as it appears in the original text. The same applies to titles of articles, books, or journals in your reference list. You may also be encouraged by instructors and project supervisors to submit some of your writing for publication. When the time comes, check the location of the publisher of the journal to determine what spelling norms should be used.<\/p>\n<div class=\"note textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Tech Tip<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>To check your spelling and grammar, select the &#8220;Spelling and Grammar&#8221; link under the &#8220;Review&#8221; menu in Microsoft Word. Either highlight the section of text you want to check or just set the cursor at the beginning of your paper and check the whole thing. Spelling errors are generally highlighted in red and grammatical errors are highlighted in green (although this may depend on your Word settings).<\/p>\n<p>Please remember that computers are not perfect. Some things will be highlighted that are not errors and other errors will be missed. For example, the word &#8220;colour&#8221; would appear as an error here because I have used the Canadian spelling.<\/p>\n<p>You can build your own customized dictionary by simply clicking on the &#8220;Add to dictionary&#8221; button on the spell check. Try it out! Highlight the word &#8220;colour,&#8221; open the spell checker and add the word to your dictionary. The red underline will disappear. Building a customized dictionary will reduce your editing time.<\/p>\n<p>The &#8220;Review&#8221; menu also provides a dictionary and thesaurus for your use.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"hyphenation\"><\/a>Hyphenation<\/h2>\n<p>You may also lose marks on spelling through the misuse of hyphens. Read Section 4.13 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, which outlines several key principles for making decisions about hyphens.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise7\"><\/a>Exercise 7<\/h3>\n<p>Complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex7\">Exercise 7<\/a> to test your understanding of these principles. Check your answers with <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex7a\">Exercise 7 Feedback<\/a>. Remember that it is better to insert a hyphen than to leave one out if the meaning of the sentence is unclear.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"note textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Tech Tip<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Be sure that Microsoft Word has not been set to automatically hyphenate words at the end of sentences. The only hyphens in your paper should be ones you deliberately insert. To remove automatic hyphenation, go to &#8220;Page Layout,&#8221; then &#8220;Page Setup,&#8221; then &#8220;Hyphenation,&#8221; and then select &#8220;None.&#8221;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"punctuation\"><\/a><strong>Punctuation<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p>Now that you know how to structure a sentence well, it is important to select appropriate punctuation to support your intended meaning. Many graduate students encounter challenges with punctuation, in part because APA style is not observed in our day-to-day interactions. However, there are a few simple rules that can eliminate confusion. Read Sections 4.01 to 4.11 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> and then review the punctuation summary tables below. These tables provide you with the more common punctuation rules.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"commas\"><\/a>Commas<\/h2>\n<h3>Table 3.12. <em>Appropriate Placement of Commas<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Between items in a series<\/td>\n<td>Commas, periods, and dashes are different types of punctuation. [Remember to put the comma before <em>and<\/em>.]<\/td>\n<td>Each use of punctuation must be purposeful, and consistent.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>To separate out non-essential elements of a sentence<\/td>\n<td>Different types of punctuation, even your use of periods, affect the pacing of your writing. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the sentence still makes sense without <em>even your use of periods<\/em>.<\/span>]<\/td>\n<td>Sentences, that run on too long, require additional punctuation. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the meaning of the sentence changes without <em>that run on too long<\/em>, so remove the commas.<\/span>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>To separate two independent clauses<\/td>\n<td>Students often misplace commas, or they fail to insert them at all. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that either part of the sentence can stand alone as a complete sentence<\/span>.]<\/td>\n<td>Most errors are a result of failing to proofread, or falling into old habits. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that <em>falling into old habits<\/em> cannot stand alone as a complete sentence<\/span>.]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Around the year in exact dates<\/td>\n<td>January 5, 2006, is an exact date, but January 2006 is not.<\/td>\n<td>January 5, 2006, is an exact date, but January, 2006 is not.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>In large numbers<\/td>\n<td>The <em>APA Manual<\/em> could be renamed <em>1,001 not-so-simple rules.<\/em><\/td>\n<td>The <em>APA Manual<\/em> could be renamed <em>1001 not-so-simple rules.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"semicolons\"><\/a>Semicolons<\/h2>\n<h3>Table 3.13. <em>Appropriate Placement of Semicolons<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Between independent clauses not joined by a conjunction<\/td>\n<td>An independent clause can function as a complete sentence; a dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the semicolon could be replaced by a conjunction like <em>but<\/em> and that each part of the sentence is independent.<\/span>]<\/td>\n<td>Some clauses cannot stand alone; without a subject and verb, for example. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that <em>without a subject and verb, for example<\/em> cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.<\/span>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Between items in a series (if commas are already used)<\/td>\n<td>Clear punctuation provides structure, clarity, and cadence; directs the reader about when to pause; and indicates what information is essential or non-essential to the meaning.<\/td>\n<td>Unclear punctuation can confuse; leave the reader out of breath; and blur the meaning of sentences.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"colons\"><\/a>Colons<\/h2>\n<h3>Table 3.14. <em>Appropriate Placement of Colons<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Between an independent clause and a phrase that describes, clarifies, or extends it<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>There are two punctuation marks that are used most frequently: periods and commas. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the first part could stand alone as a complete sentence.<\/span>]<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<td>The two most common punctuation marks are: periods and commas. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">The first part is not an independent clause \u2013 cannot stand alone \u2013 so a colon should not be inserted<\/span>.]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Between an independent clause and a clause that describes, clarifies, or extends it<\/td>\n<td>There are two punctuation marks that are used most frequently: They are periods and commas. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that if the second part could form a complete sentence, it starts with a capital letter<\/span>.]<\/td>\n<td>There are two punctuation marks that are used most frequently: there are several others that are used less often. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">A semicolon is more appropriate because the second clause does not complete the first; you could use a conjunction like <em>and<\/em> to join them<\/span>.]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>To indicate ratios \/ proportions<\/td>\n<td>The ratio of students who need no writing support is about 1:10.<\/td>\n<td>1:10 students need no writing support. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">One out of 10 students . . .<\/span>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"quotationmarks\"><\/a>Quotations marks<\/h2>\n<h3>Table 3.15. <em>Appropriate Placement of Double Quotation Marks<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>The first time you introduce a coined expression or ironic comment<\/td>\n<td>A coined expression like \u201cgrammar grudge\u201d is different from a key term like <em>sentence structure. <\/em>[<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Key terms should appear in italics the first time they are used<\/span>.]<\/td>\n<td>You could use quotations to indicate that you \u201clove\u201d grammar but not that you find punctuation \u201ceasier.\u201d [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">The second usage does not reflect irony<\/span>.]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>To indicate the title of an article or chapter<\/td>\n<td>Collins and Arthur\u2019s (2010) article, \u201cA Framework for Enhancing Multicultural Counselling Competence\u201d is worth a read.<\/td>\n<td>Collins, S., &amp; Arthur, N. (2010). \u201cA framework for enhancing multicultural counselling competence,\u201d <em>Canadian Journal of Counselling . . .<br \/>\n<\/em>[<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Quotation marks should not be used in the reference list, unless they are used within the title.<\/span>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>For verbatim instructions or test items<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>These should be treated like a normal quotation: \u201cYou will put the material in quotes, but probably won\u2019t have a page number or other citation content.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>[<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that the quotation marks belong outside of the final punctuation &#8211; e.g., .&#8221;<\/span>]<\/td>\n<td>The following instruction will exceed 40 words so requires block format:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">\u201cIn this case, you do not need the quotations marks so they would be considered an APA error\u2026\u201d<\/p>\n<p>[<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">No quotations marks used for block quotes<\/span>.]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Location of quotation marks<\/td>\n<td>Collins instructs to \u201cAlways place punctuation marks outside other punctuation marks.\u201d<\/td>\n<td>This applies &#8220;even in the middle of a sentence\u201d, which can commonly occur.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Single quotation marks should normally not be used in your paper. &#8220;One exception is to indicate &#8216;a quote within a quote,&#8217; in which the inside quotation marks should be single, not double.&#8221;\u00a0 Notice that, in both cases, the quotation marks follow the comma or period.<\/p>\n<p>Overuse of double quotations marks puts you at risk of appearing to quote others when you are not. Use other strategies to place emphasis on particular words or phrases.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"dashes\"><\/a>Dashes<\/h2>\n<h3>Table 3.16. <em>Appropriate Placement of the Dash<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>To separate material that disrupts the flow of a sentence<\/td>\n<td>The dash \u2013 as demonstrated in this example \u2013 sets apart content that does not flow with the rest of the sentence.<\/td>\n<td>The dash \u2013 which you should use infrequently \u2013 can often be replaced by a non-restrictive clause. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">the phrase <em>which you should use infrequently<\/em> would be better contained with commas<\/span>.]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"parentheses\"><\/a>Parentheses<\/h2>\n<h3>Table 3.17. <em>Appropriate Placement of Parentheses<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>To separate material that is structurally independent<\/td>\n<td>This is a bit different from the dash because material in parentheses tends to be viewed as less important (see the previous table).<\/td>\n<td>Parenthetical material may be complete sentences. (In this case, you include the punctuation inside the parentheses.) [There is nothing to suggest that this is a secondary thought that requires parentheses.]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>To contain abbreviations<\/td>\n<td>An abbreviation like Faculty of Health Disciplines (FHD) belongs in parentheses.<\/td>\n<td>However, if the referent is already in parentheses then use brackets for the abbreviation (Faculty of Health Disciplines (FHD), 2015). [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Notice that this should be <em>[FHD], 2015<\/em><\/span>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>To introduce a list of items<\/td>\n<td>Additional examples are provided for (a) mathematical expressions, (b) formulas, (c) statistics, and (d) citations (See <em>APA Manual<\/em> 4.09).<\/td>\n<td>Instead of parentheses, brackets should be used for a) inserting material in a quotation and b) material already within parentheses [as noted above]. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Letters in the list should have double parentheses; <em>as noted above<\/em> should be in parentheses, not brackets.<\/span>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"slashes\"><\/a>Slashes<\/h2>\n<h3>Table 3.18. <em>Appropriate Placement of the Slash<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principle<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Correct Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Incorrect Example<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>For comparisons where a hyphen is used in the terms already<\/td>\n<td>The self-esteem\/self-worth comparison indicated that\u2026<\/td>\n<td>The depression\/elation continuum is based on\u2026 [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Use a hyphen for simple comparisons: <em>depression-elation<\/em><\/span>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Only when clarity is not sacrificed<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>The instructor or course coordinator could answer your question about the test-retest\/inter-rater reliability comparisons.<\/p>\n<p>All of these rules apply to writing and\/or editing. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">The meaning of <em>and\/or<\/em> is writing, editing, or both.<span style=\"color: #333333;\">]<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>The instructor\/course coordinator could answer your questions. [<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">The first use makes the sentence less clear. Is the instructor\/course coordinator the same person or can either or both answer your question?<\/span>]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise8\"><\/a>Exercise 8<\/h3>\n<p>Complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex8\">Exercise 8<\/a> to test your understanding of punctuation, and then compare your responses to <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex8a\">Exercise 8 Feedback<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>If there are areas where you are still unclear, you may find it helpful to review the additional resources in Table 3.19.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.19. <em>Additional punctuation resources<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Topic<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Source<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\">Punctuation overviews<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.athabascau.ca\/courses\/engl\/egh\/internal_punc.php\" target=\"_blank\">AU English Language Handbook<em> &#8211; Internal Punctuation<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/566\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> &#8211; Brief Overview of Punctuation<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\">Commas<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> &#8211; Commas: Quick Rules<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/Commas.html\" target=\"_blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center<em> &#8211; Using Commas<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\">Semicolons<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/Semicolons.html\" target=\"_blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center<em> &#8211; Using Semicolons<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\">Commas versus semicolons<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> &#8211; Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\">Dashes versus parentheses<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/writing.wisc.edu\/Handbook\/Dashes.html\" target=\"_blank\">University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center<em> &#8211; Using Dashes<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td valign=\"top\">Plural possessive<\/td>\n<td valign=\"top\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/621\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\">Purdue University Online Writing Lab<em> &#8211; The Apostrophe<\/em><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Remember that if there are differences in editorial rules across resources, you should normally default to the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, except for the Canadian spelling noted above.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"wordformat\"><\/a><strong>Word formatting<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p>The <em>APA Manual<\/em> addresses a number of other editorial issues where the principles used are sometimes specific to the profession. As a result, you will find that various writing tutorials, which may target other audiences, introduce different rules. It is important to review the specific editorial guidelines that apply to writing in the health disciplines.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"capitalization\"><\/a><strong>Capitalization<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Read Sections 4.14 to 4.20 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> for examples of when to capitalize the words in your paper. Review the capitalization checklist in Table 3.20 for a summary of these principles. Refer to this checklist if you are unsure of where to include capital letters.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.20. <em>Capitalization Checklist<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Principles<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Examples: Capitalize<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Examples: Do Not Capitalize<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Titles of books or articles<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>In the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><em>APA Manual<\/em><\/span><\/strong>, you will find\u2026<\/p>\n<p>In the article by Adams, \u201c<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Principles of Self-Awareness<\/span><\/strong>,\u201d they described\u2026<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Titles of sections within a paper or other document<\/td>\n<td>In the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Tables<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Figures<\/span><\/strong> sections of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> some exceptions are noted.<\/td>\n<td>In the study process section that addresses <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">hyphenation<\/span><\/strong>, I suggested\u2026<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Proper nouns (not adopted into common language)<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Parse<\/span><\/strong> would have a different perspective on nursing theory than <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Nightingale<\/span><\/strong>. A <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Likert<\/span><\/strong> scale would not be a good tool for assessing this.<\/td>\n<td>Terms like <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">french<\/span><\/strong> fries are now part of the common language.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Titles of university departments or academic courses<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Department of Nursing<\/span><\/strong> offers a course called <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Individual Case Management<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<td>However, the <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">health studies<\/span><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"> division<\/span><\/strong> does not require this <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">case management<\/span><\/strong> course.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Names of theories, models, approaches<\/td>\n<td>There are similarities between <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Ellis\u2019<\/span><\/strong> rational emotive theory and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Beck\u2019s<\/span><\/strong> cognitive therapy model.<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Cognitive-behavioural theory<\/span><\/strong> approaches human nature differently than <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">psychoanalysis<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Specific numbered items<\/td>\n<td>There are several examples provided in <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Table 3.2<\/span><\/strong> that reflect the outcomes of <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Test 3<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<td>If you look at <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">column 3<\/span><\/strong>\u2026 I will address these issues on <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">page 6<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Titles of tests<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Canadian Registered Nurse Examination<\/span><\/strong> awaits those who want to license.<\/td>\n<td>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">lesson post-test<\/span><\/strong> awaits those who want to write well.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Experimental groups or conditions<\/td>\n<td><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Group A<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Group C<\/span><\/strong> were both given pretests.<\/td>\n<td>Participants were exposed to either <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">pretest<\/span><\/strong> or <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">no pretest conditions<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Titles of Factors or Variables<\/td>\n<td>\n<p><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Variable 1 (Gender)<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Variable 3 (Age)<\/span><\/strong> had a significant effect on\u2026 (capitalized as part of a numbered series)<\/p>\n<p>The <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Age x Weight x Sex<\/span><\/strong> variable was&#8230; (capitalized because terms are accompanied by multiplication sign)<\/td>\n<td>Demographic variables included <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">gender, province of residence<\/span><\/strong>, and <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">age<\/span><\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"abbreviations\"><\/a>Abbreviations<\/h2>\n<p>Understanding when to use an abbreviation begins with a few basic principles:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The purpose of an abbreviation is to increase clarity.<\/li>\n<li>Abbreviations also save space and reduce redundancy when terms are long and complicated.<\/li>\n<li>The meaning of the abbreviation must be clearly defined or commonly understood.<\/li>\n<li>Do not use more than one abbreviation for the same term or concept.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>These basic principles result in specific rules for abbreviation use in various contexts or professions. Review Sections 4.22 to 4.30 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em> for details on how to best use them in health disciplines writing. As a general test, ask yourself this question: &#8220;Does this abbreviation make my intended meaning more or less clear to my readers?&#8221;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"italics\"><\/a>Italics<\/h2>\n<p>Italics should be used carefully and infrequently in your papers. [I have use them more frequently in this e-book to point out examples because font colours may not appear on some devices.] The specific uses of italics, outlined in section 4.21 of the APA Manual, which are most likely to apply to your graduate papers, include<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>titles of books or periodicals,<\/li>\n<li>first introduction of new or important concepts or terms,<\/li>\n<li>words or phrases introduced as examples, or<\/li>\n<li>words or phrases that would otherwise be misread.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Resist the urge to use italics for emphasis. Use other grammatical devices and structure your sentences clearly to communicate what you see as important.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"numbers\"><\/a>Numbers<\/h2>\n<p>Based on Sections 4.31 to 4.40 of the <em>APA Manual<\/em>, here are a few simple rules that you should remember for referring to numbers.<\/p>\n<h3>Table 3.21. <em>Expressing numbers in figures or words<\/em><\/h3>\n<table style=\"background-color: #ecf7e1; border-color: #050505;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"background-color: #aac288;\">\n<td style=\"width: 50%;\" scope=\"col\">\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Express the following in figures<br \/>\n(e.g., 5)<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\">Express the following in words<br \/>\n(e.g., five)<\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%;\" scope=\"col\">\n<ul>\n<li>all numbers 10 and above<\/li>\n<li>a combination of numbers less than and greater than 10 that occur in the same paragraph (as long as the numbers compare the same thing)<\/li>\n<li>dates, times, ages, money<\/li>\n<li>sample sizes<\/li>\n<li>specific points in numbers series<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>all numbers between zero and nine<\/li>\n<li>common fractions<\/li>\n<li>numbers at the beginning of a sentence, title, or heading<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\"><a id=\"exercise9\"><\/a>Exercise 9<\/h3>\n<p>Complete <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex9\">Exercise 9<\/a> to test your understanding of these principles related to capitalization, abbreviations, italics, and numbers. Check your answers with <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/back-matter\/practice-exercises-and-activities\/#ch3ex9a\">Exercise 9 Feedback<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1><strong><a id=\"summary\"><\/a>Summary<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/how-do-you-generate-and-position-your-ideas\/\">Chapter 2<\/a>, you spent a lot of time focusing on the forest<em>,<\/em> getting the big picture of what your paper would look like and how you would develop a logical and convincing argument for your reader. This chapter has honed in on the trees<em>, <\/em>many of the little details that can influence whether or not those great ideas you developed in <a href=\"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/chapter\/how-do-you-generate-and-position-your-ideas\/\">Chapter 2<\/a> are accessible to the reader. The more you are able to fine-tune your writing in these areas, the more meaningful and straightforward your communication will be.<\/p>\n<p>I expect that this lesson will be a challenge for many students. It was a challenge for me to ensure that I was providing correct examples and feedback on all exercises. However, some of you may experience more difficulty than others with basic written language skills. You may need to engage in further skill development before you can be successful in graduate school. Please search out the resources at your home university. If you are an AU student, take advantage of the resources provided through our <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/write-site.athabascau.ca\/\">Write Site<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Now is a good time to step back again from this detailed revision of your words, your sentences, and your individual paragraphs to reread your paper, looking again for overall flow and ease of understanding. Make sure that your thesis and arguments remain clear. You may want to use the checklist below to wrap up this part of your revision process. I have drawn some of these ideas from Fowler et al. (2005).<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Have you structured each paragraph in a deliberate way to support the key point?<\/li>\n<li>Have you structured the paper to make the flow of key points in the argument clear?<\/li>\n<li>Have you made the relationship among various parts of the paper transparent?<\/li>\n<li>Have you used appropriate transitional devices to support the flow of argument from one paragraph to another?<\/li>\n<li>Have you written in a concise way, without extraneous words that distract from the meaning?<\/li>\n<li>Is your writing precise and clear, without vague pronouns or jargon that may distract and confuse the reader?<\/li>\n<li>Have you used appropriate structuring skills to link the various components of the argument (paragraphs) to one another?<\/li>\n<li>Have you made the intention of the original author clear through the verbs you used?<\/li>\n<li>Have you chosen consistent verb tense within various sections of the paper?<\/li>\n<li>Does your selection of verb tense fit with the purpose of each section?<\/li>\n<li>Does your sentence structure support clarity and precision of meaning?<\/li>\n<li>Is there agreement between subjects and verbs, nouns and pronouns?<\/li>\n<li>Have you carefully place modifiers close to the word that they relate to?<\/li>\n<li>Have you cordoned off subordinate elements with commas so they do not dilute the main message of each sentence?<\/li>\n<li>Are you using parallel construction, voice, and verb tense within each sentence?<\/li>\n<li>Have you run a spelling and grammar check? Have you double checked for Canadian spelling or other words that are spelled correctly but used incorrectly?<\/li>\n<li>Does your use of punctuation enhance the flow of meaning in your writing? Have you over or under used certain types of punctuation?<\/li>\n<li>Does your formatting of individual words reflect the guidelines in the <em>APA<\/em> Manual?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"Communicating your ideas","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["sandra-collins"],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-nc-sa","_wp_rev_ctl_limit":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[53],"license":[61],"class_list":["post-24","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-sandra-collins","license-cc-by-nc-sa"],"part":19,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/24","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/24\/revisions"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/19"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/24\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=24"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=24"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=24"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/on-linelearning.ca\/professionalwriting\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=24"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}